Staying Afloat
Examining the Resilience of the European Inland Waterway Transportation
Industry in the Face of Climate Related Disruptions:
A Policy and Resilience Analysis
Spring term, 2023
Master’s Degree Project - Logistics and Transport Management
Authors: Hibaakh Jamac and Linnea Ahlgren
Supervisor: Associate Senior Lecturer, Marta Gonzalez-Aregall
Graduate School at the School of Business, Economics and Law
ABSTRACT
Due to its lower emissions in comparison to other modes of transport, inland waterway
transportation (IWT) has been increasingly considered a sustainable option by the European
Union (EU), prompting a focus on transitioning towards it in recent years. However, the
impact of climate change has led to a rise in extreme weather events, including floods and
droughts, over the past few decades. As a result, these events are affecting Europe's inland
waterways, causing fluctuations in water levels that disrupt inland waterway transportation.
This poses challenges for inland barge companies and ports, making it difficult to carry out
regular operations and potentially leading to significant shifts in transportation models across
Europe.
This report aims to investigate how IWT industry actors such as inland barge companies and
ports in western Europe are coping with the current situation with disruptions caused by
extreme weather. The IWT actors' capabilities to cope with the extreme weather related
disruptions are considered based on a resilience framework.Furthermore, identify existing
policies and measures in the EU focusing on IWT and the climate change and extreme
weather impacts that disrupt the industry. This study has been carried out through a literature
review on existing policies and measures as well as collecting data through semi-structured
interviews.
The findings of the report show that the main climate related disruption faced by IWT actors
pertains to more frequent and severe changes in water level, especially drought, which mainly
decreases the capacity utilisation of inland barge companies. When examining the resilience
capabilities of such companies, findings show that the use of technological systems, good
customer service, collaboration and strong knowledge and experience in the industry are seen
to be strong contributors to inland barge companies' resilience in times of disruptions.
Furthermore, in order for inland waterway transportation to be more resilient and competitive
compared to road and rail transport, more involvement from the government is needed to
maintain and strengthen infrastructure for waterway transportation in Europe. EU and
governments play an important role to engage all actors and at the same time maintain the
waterways to help reduce the extent of the consequences caused by the disruptions.
Keywords: Climate Change, Inland Waterway Transportation, Inland Barge Companies,
Inland Ports, Policies and Initiatives, Adaptation, Extreme Weather
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, we, the authors of this report, Linnea Ahlgren and Hibaakh Jamac, are grateful for
all the support and encouragement we have received during the process of writing this thesis
report.
We would like to express special gratitude to our supervisor Marta Gonzalez-Aregall, the
Associate Senior Lecturer of Logistics and Transport Economics at the School of Business,
Economics and Law, University of Gothenburg. Without her expertise, feedback and
guidelines this report would not be achievable.
We would further like to give a special thanks to our seminar groups for your insightful
suggestions and comments which helped us to improve our thesis report.
We would also like to convey our appropriation to the interviewees for their willingness to
take part in contributing with their knowledge, experiences and insights.
Finally, we would like to thank our families and friends for their support and patience during
this time.
Linnea Ahlgren Hibaakh Jamac
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES....................................................................................................................................
LIST OF FIGURES.................................................................................................................................
ABBREVIATIONS..................................................................................................................................
1. INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background..................................................................................................................................2
1.2 Climate Change and Extreme Weather in Europe....................................................................... 3
1.3 Problem Discussion..................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Context of Study..........................................................................................................................4
1.5 Objective and Research Questions.............................................................................................. 5
1.6 Scope and Delimitations..............................................................................................................6
2. LITERATURE REVIEW..................................................................................................................7
2.1 Inland Waterway Industry............................................................................................................7
2.1.1 Networks............................................................................................................................ 7
2.1.2 Inland Ports........................................................................................................................ 8
2.2 Climate and Extreme Weather Related Disruptions on Inland Waterway Transportation.......... 8
2.2.1 Cargo Capacity...................................................................................................................9
2.2.2 Infrastructure impediments.............................................................................................. 10
2.2.3 Navigability and transportation time................................................................................11
2.2.4 Damage and Ice................................................................................................................12
2.3 Countries Inland Waterways and Weather Related Disruptions................................................12
2.3.1 The Netherlands............................................................................................................... 12
2.3.2 Germany...........................................................................................................................13
2.3.3 Belgium............................................................................................................................13
2.3.4 France...............................................................................................................................14
2.3.5 Romania........................................................................................................................... 15
2.3.6 Bulgaria............................................................................................................................15
2.3.7 Hungary............................................................................................................................16
3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK................................................................................................. 17
3.1 Disruptions on transportation.................................................................................................... 17
3.2 Transport risk management....................................................................................................... 18
3.3 Resilience capabilities of inland waterway transportation........................................................ 18
3.4 Climate policies and measures for inland waterway transportation.......................................... 19
3.5 Policy categorisation framework............................................................................................... 20
4. METHODOLOGY...........................................................................................................................22
4.1 Research design......................................................................................................................... 22
4.2 Data collection...........................................................................................................................23
4.2.1 Identification of policies and measures............................................................................23
4.2.2 Interviews.........................................................................................................................23
4.2.2.1 Sampling.................................................................................................................24
4.2.2.2 Semi-structured interviews.....................................................................................25
4.2.2.3 Ethical Considerations............................................................................................25
4.2.2.4 Respondents............................................................................................................26
4.2.3 Literature review.............................................................................................................. 29
4.3 Data analysis..............................................................................................................................29
4.4 Validity and Reliability..............................................................................................................30
5. EMPIRICAL RESULTS AND ANALYSIS................................................................................... 32
5.1 Climate Policies for Inland Waterway Transportation in the European Union......................... 32
5.2 Climate Policies and Measures in EU Countries.......................................................................34
5.2.1 Climate adaptation and Policies in Netherlands.............................................................. 36
5.2.2 Climate Adaptation and Policies in Germany..................................................................37
5.2.3 Climate Adaptation and Policies in Belgium...................................................................39
5.2.4 Climate Adaptation and Policies in France......................................................................40
5.2.5 Climate Adaptation and Policies in Romania.................................................................. 41
5.2.6 Climate Adaptation and Policies in Bulgaria...................................................................42
5.2.7 Climate Adaptation and Policies in Hungary...................................................................42
5.3 The resilience capabilities of the inland waterway transportation actors..................................42
5.3.1 Absorptive capabilities.....................................................................................................42
5.3.2 Adaptive capabilities........................................................................................................48
5.3.3 Restorative capabilities.................................................................................................... 52
6. DISCUSSION................................................................................................................................... 54
6.1 Climate policies for adaptation and barriers....................................................................... 54
6.2 Inland barge companies resilience during climate related disruptions.............................. 56
7. CONCLUSION AND FINAL REMARKS.................................................................................... 59
REFERENCES.....................................................................................................................................61
APPENDIX 1........................................................................................................................................ 73
APPENDIX 2........................................................................................................................................ 75
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Self-constructed table over transportation disruption factors and sub-factors.
Table 2. Capability factors categorised in absorptive, adaptive and restorative capabilities.
Table 3. Primary and sub-categories for policy areas
Table 4. List of policies and measures developed by the EU relating to Climate related disruptions and
IWT.
Table 5. List of policies and measures developed countries in Europe relating to Climate related
disruptions and IWT.
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Self-constructed figure over main European inland waterways.
Figure 2. Overview of the research design.
Figure 3. Self-constructed figure over the offices and waterways the respondents operate.
Figure 4. Map over Contargo's operation routes.
Figure 5. Map over Van Berkel’s operation routes.
Figure 6. Adaptation and mitigation policies developed by the EU.
Figure 7. Types of Adaptation policies and initiatives in the EU according to the categorisation
framework.
Figure 8. Adaptation and mitigation policies developed by EU countries.
Figure 9. Types of adaptation policies and measures developed by EU countries.
ABBREVIATIONS
ARA Amsterdam, Rotterdam and Antwerp
CCNR Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine
CEF Connecting Europe Facility
IWT Inland Waterway Transportation
EU European Union
EFIP European Federation of Inland Ports
FTIP Federal Transport Infrastructure Plan
IPPC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
INE Inland Navigation Europe
NAS National Adaptation Strategy
PNACC National Plan for Climate Change Adaptation
VAP Flemish Adaptation Plan
VKP Flemish Climate Policy Plan
VMP Flemish Mitigation Plan
1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter includes an introduction to the topic of the report and presents some background to
increase the basic knowledge of the subject. Further discussed in the problem discussion to generate
research questions for the report. The chapter ends with a scope and delimitation section to provide
an explanation of what this report covers.
Inland waterway transportation (IWT)1 is increasingly recognised as a more sustainable mode
of transport, with lower emissions compared to other options (Michaelidas et al., 2014). The
European Union (EU) has acknowledged the potential of IWT and is transitioning towards it
as a preferred choice for freight transport (Jacobs, 2023). IWT needs to become more resilient
to be able to cope with unexpected events. For example, the pandemic Covid-19 caused
disruptions for waterborne transportation and if the industry would have been more resilient
the consequences may have been less (Cant, 2022).
However, the rising impacts of climate change and extreme weather pose significant
challenges to the resilience and reliability of IWT systems (Jacobs, 2023). Climate change
induced extreme weather events, such as storms, heatwaves, heavy rainfall, and droughts,
directly affect the navigability and safety of inland waterways, leading to disruptions in
transportation operations (Schweighofer, 2014). For instance, the summer droughts
experienced in Europe in 2022 demonstrated the escalating impact of climate change. The
magnitude of the drought period, which historically occurred once every 400 years, now
transpires approximately every 20 years due to global warming. As a result, more frequent
and stronger droughts are anticipated in the future (Edwards,2022). To address these
challenges, the concept of resilience has emerged as an approach for managing the effects of
climate change and extreme weather on IWT systems (Jacobs, 2023).
Furthermore, to become climate resilient, all actors need to mitigate the emissions related to
the transport sector by for example investing in other more sustainable fuels and adapt to the
current situation through for instance investing in digital solutions to better predict and
continue operations during disruptions. Provided that, there exist policies2 and measures3 to
increase awareness and resilience (Jacobs, 2023). Therefore, this report aims to
comprehensively analyse the existing policies that address the impact of climate change and
extreme weather on IWT. Furthermore, the thesis will examine the actions taken by inland
barge companies in the EU, to cope with climate change and extreme weather related
disruptions.
1 The movement of goods on navigable inland waterways using inland waterways barges (Eurostat, n.d.a).
2 A plan or set of ideas that describes the actions per specific situation created by an organisation, group of
people, government or political party (Cambridge Dictionary, n.d.a).
3 An action including an achievement of a particular aim (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries, n.d.a)
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1.1 Background
IWT serves as an alternative mode of transport for short distance, which can be utilised to
complement road and rail transport and increase intermodal freight transport (UNECE, n.d.).
The fundamental aspect of IWT is its capability to facilitate sea shipping in proximity to
hinterlands4, and connect ports with densely populated and industrial areas (Tournaye, 2020).
The benefits of IWT include its safety, noise reduction, energy efficiency and a lesser
tendency to congestion compared to other transport modes (Debyser, 2014). IWT is more
energy efficient because barges normally can carry more units compared to trucks and trains
(IRPT, n.d.). Per tonne of goods, IWT consumes 17 percent of the energy used by road
transport and 50 percent by rail transport (Jacobs, 2022). Further opportunities for using this
transport mode in Europe is that IWT reduces the dependence on land-based transportation
and enables transportation using waterways and provides increased capacity and redundancy
without further land demands (Nemethy & Molnar, 2014). The fleet composition of
waterborne transportation has been gradually shifting over the past few decades, with a
growing proportion of larger and deeper drafted vessels. This trend has significantly
increased the economic efficiency of waterborne transport (Van Meijeren, Groen and
Noordegraaf, 2011; Vergragt & Quist, 2011). In recent years, there has also been more
innovation investments on inland vessels in relation to digitalisation and electrification
(Ajdin, 2022). IWT has enabled the efficient movement of bulk commodities such as coal,
grains, oil, and commodities using containers, providing a cost-effective and less
environmentally damaging option for freight transport. IWT has also played a significant role
in the development of trade and commerce in many countries, contributing to their economic
growth and social development (Mallick, 2020).
In Europe, the modal share of IWT has remained at approximately six percent in recent years
(Jacobs, 2022). The modal split for inland transportation5 in Europe during 2017 made up six
percent for IWT, 75.6 percent for road and 17.9 percent for rail transportation (Eurostat,
2019). Underlying causes why IWT have remained around six percent may be the present
challenges where the resources for development are limited. From the whole transport
sector’s funding is IWT receiving around four to seven percent. Consequently, limited
funding has created challenges for the IWT in terms of restricted maintenance and missing
repeating dredging procedures, poor navigation systems, insufficient port facilities, lacking
data for maintenance and outdated regulations and rules (The World Bank, 2019). However,
the modal shift within some countries is higher, depending on their geography and if they are
located close to inland waterways. For example, in 2020 the Netherlands had 43 percent of
IWT of all transport modes while Bulgaria and Romania had 31 respectively 28 percent
(Jacobs, 2022).
The inland waterway system faces different kinds of disruptions both man-made and neutral
and accounts as floods, droughts, ice, infrastructure damage and collisions which can result in
4 A country’s remote areas away from the banks of main rivers or the coast (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries,
n.d.b).
5 Road, rail and inland waterway transportation (Eurostat, n.d.b).
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negative consequences (Delgado-Hidalgo & Nachtmann, 2021; Zhang, Lee & Holmer, 2017).
There are also different kinds of unexpected events like natural disasters, attacks or accidents
caused by humans that can cause disruption for inland waterway operations (Baroud et al,
2014). With the focus of this report will the common extreme weather disruptions on inland
waterways be further investigated.
1.2 Climate Change and Extreme Weather in Europe
In Europe global warming is expected to result in wetter climate with risk for floods with
heavy participation and snowmelt in the northern part while being dryer in the western and
southern parts with a higher risk for droughts making the impact different depending on the
geographical areas of the continent. In addition, southern Europe is also expected to
experience more extreme winds (Feyen et al., 2020). As mentioned in the introduction
chapter, droughts were a wide problem in Europe during summer 2022 (Edwards, 2022). For
example, has the river Rhine been affected by the extreme weather many times (Latham,
2023). During the same summer England was exposed to drought with the summer accounted
as the driest in 50 years. Parts of numerous rivers were dried up and indicators show there
were levels lowest recorded. The drought was a consequence of low rainfall over a long
period and extreme heat (Dewan, 2022). In addition to this, the European winter 2023 has had
unusually high temperatures in combination with low precipitation and lack of snow and ice.
Therefore, has the water levels in rivers, lakes and canals been alarmingly low which usually
is associated with summer and not the winter season. The problems have been seen in
northern Italy and Spain and the central and southwest France. As for example the city of
Venice in Italy, which in the past mainly had problems with floods, is now experiencing
droughts due to less precipitation. There are concerns that winter droughts will be a new
reality as a consequence from increased global temperatures (Edwards & Gretener, 2023).
Moreover, climate change and global warming have also led to an increased risk for floods
(Feyen, 2020). In addition, the topology affects the progress of hydrological events where
closeness to mountains and connections to tributaries can help mitigate the effects. The
winter period can have long periods of snow, melting snow or a combination of melting
snow, ice and precipitation causing high water levels and winter floods. For example, in 2003
did the river Elbe in Europe experience an ice period which led to ice jams, a combination of
winter precipitation and led to a critical high water level (Schweighofer, 2014). In addition,
longer periods with low temperatures resulting in ice can cause disruptions while low
visibility and wind might have a negative but are considered to be of less significance
(Michaelidas et al, 2014). In this study, the terms ‘climate change’ and ‘extreme weather’
interchangeably refer to the general concerns of this study.
1.3 Problem Discussion
Transition and competitiveness
As mentioned previously, due to the lower emissions emitted by IWT in comparison to other
modes of transports, it has become considered to be a more sustainable choice of transport by
the EU and thus has placed an increasing emphasis on transitioning towards it in recent years.
One example of this is the action NAIADES III in which the European Commission put forth
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in 2021 for ‘Future-proofing European inland waterway transport’ with the aim of shifting
more cargo over Europe's rivers and canals, and facilitate the transition to zero-emission
barges by 2050 (European Commision, n.d.a). The action plan also recognises the needs for
the transport mode in increasing its competitiveness since it has a significantly smaller modal
split percentage than other modes of transport. Actions such as accelerating investments in
infrastructure and network, deployment in innovative and zero-emission technologies and
digital developments are proposed to increase its competitiveness. Despite these numerous
efforts, IWT is facing challenges from other areas such as extreme weather and climate
change, similar to other modes of transport (Schweighofer, 2014). It is therefore important to
consider and evaluate the different impacts that IWT faces and the capabilities they have in
order to better implement effective measures to strengthen its competitiveness and secure the
transitioning goals of EU policies.
Promotion and adaptation
Literature shows that strategies and policies from the EU have previously focused on the
mitigation aspect of climate change (Lenaerts, Tagliapietra & Wolff, 2022). Adaptation,
which involves avoiding, limiting and managing the harmful effects of climate change, has
been considered to be a regional and local issue. However, in recent times the EU has shifted
its focus towards adaptation measures to mitigate the effects of climate change that cannot be
avoided. In addition to the latter policies, the EU has also developed a number of other
measures aimed at promoting sustainable transportation, including the EU Adaptation
Strategy, which is focused on adapting to the impacts of climate change, and the Sustainable
and Smart Mobility Strategy, which aims to reduce the environmental impact of transport and
support the transition to a low-carbon economy . These policies and measures aim to address
the challenges posed by climate change and extreme weather, and to ensure that inland
waterways play a more significant role in meeting the EU's sustainability goals (European
Commission, n.d.b).
1.4 Context of Study
The context of this report is Europe and accounts for 3500 kilometres of navigable inland
waterways (Beyer, 2018). According to the Central Commission for the Navigation of the
River Rhine (CCNR) in Europe there are in total 19 countries covered with inland waterways
and as this study covers a whole continent the most significant countries have been chosen to
represent Europe. As the focus of this report is Europe and particularly on the policies in the
EU and countries, this report particularly emphasises on countries where there is a significant
percentage of IWT operations. Therefore, the context of this study includes those seven
countries with the highest performance rate in 2021 and includes Germany (48.2 percent), the
Netherlands (47.4 percent), Romania (13.5 percent), Belgium (8.2 percent), France (7.2
percent), Bulgaria (5.8 percent) and Hungary (1.9 percent) (CCNR, 2022). As shown in
Figure 1 below, these countries are located around the vital inland waterways in Europe as
the river Rhine, Elbe, Maas and Danube
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Figure 1. Self-constructed figure over main European inland waterways.
1.5 Objective and Research Questions
This thesis aims at exploring the existing policies and measures that addresses the climate
change and extreme weather disruptions on IWT in the EU and examine how IWT industry
actors in western Europe cope with such related disruptions. This research covers the effects
and actions by inland barge company actors in coping with such mentioned challenges from a
framework of resilience capabilities. The goal is to make recommendations for improving the
resilience of the IWT from a private and public perspective, and contribute to ensuring the
competitiveness of IWT industry actors in the future. Based on the objectives the main
research question is as follows:
RQ 1: How can inland waterway transportation industry actors in Europe remain resilient
during climate change and extreme weather disruptions?
To easier answer the main research question, two sub-research questions were established:
RQ 2: What EU policies and measures exist to address climate change and extreme weather
impact on inland waterway transportation?
RQ 3: What actions are inland waterway transportation industry actors taking to prepare for,
respond to, and recover from climate and extreme weather disruptions?
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1.6 Scope and Delimitations
The scope of this report is on IWT in the EU, with an in-depth look at the adaptation policies
and measures that exist in the EU as well as on IWT industry actors such as inland barge
companies and ports. After researching the topic of IWT in Europe related to climate change
disruption, the authors identified a research gap where industry actors were not included.
Therefore, these actors of special focus are inland barge companies considered in this report
to generate a wider aspect of the whole IWT industry. The industry actors are located in
western Europe.
The delimitations are the focus of Europe and those countries which geographically are
covered with inland waterways. To focus specifically on countries that utilise inland
waterway transportation (IWT), the authors narrowed their analysis using statistics from the
Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine's (CCNR) Annual Report 2022. The
organisation identified the countries with the highest performance IWT freight rate in 2021.
The authors choose the seven top countries because they have a significant performance rate
to receive more available information and data to generate valid results for this report. The
countries chosen were Germany, the Netherlands, Romania, Belgium, France, Bulgaria and
Hungary (CCNR, 2022).
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2. LITERATURE REVIEW
This section will present an overview of the related aspects to the topic to generate a deeper
understanding of the research purpose. The literature review chapter is composed of two parts where
key concepts for IWT, European network and ports are presented to further elaborate on the climate
change impacts on IWT.
2.1 Inland Waterway Industry
In 2021, 136 billion euros tonne-kilometre of freight were transported by inland waterways in
the EU. In terms of barges, the Netherlands dominated this mode of transport, accounting for
approximately 50 percent of IWT in Europe. The next largest shares were German vessels
with approximately 16 percent and Belgium vessels with 10 percent (Eurostat, 2019). The
European IWT industry relies heavily on market segments such as steel, agriculture, food and
chemicals. Freights carried on inland waterways are usually bulk and heavy weight cargo
because of the speed, consolidation and intermodal dependence for the first and last mile
(Nemethy & Molnar, 2014). However, the multimodal container transport is a fast-growing
segment of IWT (Smid, Dekker & Wiegmans, 2016). Most goods that were transported in
2021 were mining and quarrying products (23.8 percent), followed by coke and refined
petroleum products (15.4 percent) and products of agriculture, forestry and fishing (13.2
percent). There is no direct correspondence between the type of cargo and its classification
since the same commodity can be transported through various methods. For instance,
although petroleum products are commonly transported as liquid bulk, they can also be
transported in containerized form or as mobile units (Eurostat, 2019).
2.1.1 Networks
In Europe, the inland waterway network is a vital part of the transportation infrastructure. It
spans over 20 EU member states and covers a distance of 37,000 kilometres, connecting
many cities and industrial regions. This network comprises canals, rivers, and other
waterways that differ from sea transportation in several ways. While sea transport involves
navigating through vast expanses of water, inland waterways operate on narrower channels,
often with shallower depths, and are more suitable for transporting bulk goods over short to
medium distances. One of the most significant waterway networks in Europe is the
Rhine-Main-Danube, which accounts for more than 80 percent of all inland waterway freight
transport in the region (Nemethy & Molnar, 2014). This network is relatively dense in
Germany, the Netherlands, and France, and includes other waterways such as the Seine,
Douro, and Rhone-Saone respectively. Navigating through inland waterways requires specific
infrastructure such as locks, canals, and bridges to regulate water levels, separate waterways
with different salinity, and enable easier navigation. Locks are a crucial element of inland
waterways and are used to control the water level to provide a consistent depth for vessels to
navigate. The water used to support the navigability of the inland waterway network is
derived from various sources, including natural water flows and reservoirs (Wiegmans & Van
Duin, 2017). The inland waterway network in Europe is not only critical for transportation
but also for the economic development of the region. It provides an environmentally
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sustainable mode of transport, reducing the carbon footprint of freight transportation
compared to road and air transport. Additionally, it supports local businesses and employment
by providing an alternative means of transport for goods and materials (Inland Waterway
Transport, n.d.).
2.1.2 Inland Ports
Europe consists of a vast network of approximately 1,200 major and minor ports, located
across diverse waterways, including the North Sea, Baltic Sea, Mediterranean Sea, and Black
Sea. The largest ports in terms of volume of trade are Rotterdam, Antwerp, and Hamburg,
which handle a significant portion of the region's freight traffic, particularly in terms of
containerised cargo (Menon, 2021). In addition to these major ports, there are several smaller
ports located across the continent, serving local communities and industries. According to the
European Federation of Inland Ports, there are approximately 200 inland ports located
amongst the EU member states, as well as Ukraine, Switzerland, and Serbia. These inland
ports, which are situated along rivers, canals, and other inland waterways, provide a vital link
between the sea ports and the interior of Europe. They serve as multimodal hubs, connecting
different modes of transport such as air, road, rail, and inland waterways. Additionally, inland
ports play a crucial role in facilitating the transport of bulk goods, particularly raw materials
and agricultural products, which are transported over short to medium distances (EFIP, n.d.).
Ports are crucial in supporting the exchange of goods within the internal market and in
linking peripheral and island areas with the mainland of Europe. For instance, the ports of
Piraeus in Greece and Cagliari in Italy are vital in connecting the Mediterranean islands with
the mainland. Moreover, ports play a crucial role in the transportation of people. According to
the European Commission, approximately 400 million passengers embark and disembark in
European ports annually, making ports a crucial component of the transport system
(European Commission, n.d.c).
2.2 Climate and Extreme Weather Related Disruptions on Inland Waterway
Transportation
Previous research has pointed out several disruptions on the IWT system and infrastructure
from extreme weather. The impact of extreme weather on IWT is different depending on the
climate conditions in a certain area. Also, the criticality of a weather constellation on IWT is
dependent on the characteristics of the waterways and the topology, as well as seasons
(Schweighofer, 2014). A considerable amount of current news articles on climate change and
extreme weather on IWT in Europe have highlighted a severe period of droughts along river
Rhine. France who transported over 52 million tonnes of cargo during 2021 along waterways
have experienced low rainfall and high temperatures, limiting transport along canals around
river Rhine due to low water levels (Hird, 2022). Italy's longest river, the Po, experienced its
worst drought in 70 years during 2022, which affected both water supply and navigation
(Edwards & Gretener, 2023). On the contrary, countries in central Europe have also
experienced flooding as a consequence from climate change and high perceptions
(Economist, 2021). Taking into account the level of uncertainty that surrounds the impact of
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climate change on IWT, the following section will proceed to discuss the general
consequences that have been demonstrated in the existing literature.
2.2.1 Cargo Capacity
There have been limited studies on the area of low water impact on IWT (Koetse & Rietveld,
2009). However, it has been noted that there has been a growing attention on the climate
change impact on IWT and its supply chain in the last decade. Studies about climate change
impact on IWT have shown that IWT is mostly affected by climate change relating to
precipitation, temperature and most severely with low water levels in relation to their
navigation and cargo capacity (Koetse & Rietveld, 2009; Dorsser et al., 2015). The view is
supported by Schweighofer (2014) who argued that in the case of low water levels, vessels
cannot utilise their full cargo capacity and in some cases, it can fully restrict larger vessels to
navigate on inland waterways (Schweighofer, 2014; Michaelidas et al., 2014). A decrease in
water levels can in turn reduce the effective supply of goods in the market (Jonkeren et al,
2014; Koetse & Rietveld, 2009). This is because vessel draughts depend on water levels,
which then determines the capacity at which vessels can carry cargo. Water levels may also
remain low for a longer period and impact the IWT cargo capacity transportation for weeks,
up to months which leads to higher transportation costs (Scweighofer, 2014). On the contrary,
higher water levels allow for large vessels to safely navigate on inland waterways
(Christodoulou & Woxenius, 2020).
In the case of low water levels, if a barge draught allows for a depth of two metres, a large
cargo vessel with a length of 110 metres can only carry around 1200 tons, which is about 40
percent of its maximum cargo capacity. In these situations, inland shippers might resort to
using smaller barges to be able to transport remaining cargo. In that case, inland barge
companies can experience higher transportation costs because of the arrangement of more
transportation with smaller barges. Research points at the need for sufficient navigation
conditions for both large and smaller barges during periods of low water levels
(Schweighofer, 2014). This can be seen as of more importance in present time considering
that the barges operating on waterways are getting larger and deeper, parallel to increasing
demand (Allianz Global Corporate & Specialty, 2018). Furthermore, Vinkel et al. (2022) add
to the effects of reduced navigable depth by mentioning increase in traffic intensity, increase
of arrivals and queue formations and a higher filling degree of stocks in ports and delay of
goods supplied (Vinke et al., 2022).
Compared to previous studies mentioned, the effects of low water levels and drought on IWT
supply chain and network was studied by Vinke et al (2022). These authors identified a
research gap in the literature on the state on river discharges to supply chain performances.
They used a novel method to explicitly include the cascading effects of low discharge event
and mitigation measures in climate risk assessment of waterborne supply chain performance,
at the Rhine River between Rotterdam, the Netherlands and Duisburg, Germany. Current
literature has shown that in climate change assessment, the focus has been mainly on
anticipated transport costs increases for a range of scenarios. The applied approaches have
9
shown to be relevant in examining the impacts on loading rates, number of trips and transport
costs. However, it doesn’t include a good representative of vessel deployment based on the
navigable conditions, and ignores changes in fleet composition, additional systemic effects
and secondary effects in the supply chain, such as terminal occupancies. The results showed
that water level changes have a significant impact on fleet composition occupancy, arrival at
original destination. Moreover, the study found a phenomenon where the end of the dry
period showed a smaller transported volume for Rhine vessels and coupled barges, but with a
close look at separate vessel types showed that it was caused by a higher transport volume for
Rhine vessels and coupled barges. This can be explained by the fact that the model assumes a
maximum amount of cargo loading that can be transported by different types of vessels, while
in practice barge operators may push the amount of cargo they can carry to optimise loading
capacity during dry periods (Vinke et al. 2022).
The river Rhine is a key waterway that connects many regions. However, in 2018 the river
experienced severe low-water level days and droughts that impacted the transport capacity of
the river for several months, leading to shortages of source materials and fuels in regions far
inland. Inland waterways are based on a system of rivers and canals with a controlled water
level, therefore extreme weather disruptions can have significant impact on the logistics of
IWT (Michaelidas et al., 2014). This event highlighted the vulnerability of IWT in western
Europe to changes in water levels, which has become more frequent and severe and still a
prevalent issue on inland waterways on the river Rhine and is affecting nearby inland
waterway navigation (Oltermann, 2022; Michaelidas et al., 2014).
In previous studies by Schweighofer (2014) in which the author amongst others carried out a
project on ‘general assessment on climate change on IWT in Europe’ found that winter
discharges are about to decrease and summer discharges are about to increase. This shows
that some areas in Europe will be more affected and others less. Depending on the location,
this might lead to more extreme water conditions in places where they have low water
discharges in winter and high water discharges in summer. And the opposite will lead to more
balanced conditions. The author mentions that there is no proper information on the
frequency and length of high-water periods and this literature lacks a quantitative conclusion
on the future effects (Schweighofer, 2014). Given the previous mentioned crucial role of
inland transportation in the global, national and business economies, the effects of periods of
low water levels and droughts can both have negative financial impacts (UNECE, 2021).
2.2.2 Infrastructure impediments
Studies on water levels impact on IWT directly have shown to be relatively small, compared
to existing studies that have demonstrated generally more consequences relating to IWT
infrastructure. As mentioned before, higher water levels make the water become deeper,
potentially allowing for deeper vessels to navigate a particular channel. However, in some
cases, a higher sea level can result in impediments or delays on IWT due to the infrastructure
surrounding inland waterways (Titus, n.d.). Nemethy et al. (2022) continues to mention the
example of a barge's ability to pass beneath bridges due to higher water levels. The water
10
level determines the size and height of vessels that can be transported in the area and in the
case of container shipping, how many containers that can be stacked on a vessel (Nemethy et
al., 2022). Although, this circumstance is more significant in places where bridges are not
equipped with drawbridges or high spans (Titus, n.d.).
Moreover, studies have shown that rising water levels has led to increased flooding of
riverbanks and nearby low-lying areas, causing damage to transportation infrastructure such
as ports as well as signs, ramps, locks and dams. Ports have a significant part in the trade with
waterborne transport. As a result, any disruption that affects ports can have significant impact
on IWT and studies suggest that ports in Europe have a high level of risk for water level rises
compared to other parts of the world. It is worth mentioning, that the level of which extreme
weather and rising water levels can impact ports depend on the protection measures in place.
Furthermore, ports that are not located on coastal inland areas can be more easily protected
against rising water levels, such as Amsterdam, Hamburg, Antwerp, Gothenburg and London,
to mention a few (Christodoulou, Christidis & Bisselink, 2020).
Researchers have pointed out that driftwood, originating from both free-flowing sections and
locks, poses a danger to vessel propulsion devices (Schweighofer, 2014). Furthermore, the
increasing water levels have formed from increased frequency of extreme weather events
such as hurricanes, storms, and heavy precipitation which has also contributed to disruptions
on the IWT infrastructure (Némethy et al., 2022; Schweighofer, 2014). Moreover, short-term
river closures due to safety concerns are likely to occur because of flooding. These impacts
can result in longer transit times, higher maintenance costs, and more frequent disruptions to
the transportation of goods (Schweighofer, 2014).
2.2.3 Navigability and transportation time
IWT can be affected by various environmental factors such as high water, suspension, winds,
visibility, and ice occurrences. These factors can have a notable impact on IWT, which in turn
affects the transportation time. High water and suspension can have an impact on IWT
through delays or suspension, although it is considered a short-lasting phenomenon. The
impact can be hard to predict since different waterways can experience increasing water
levels at varying rates. Thus, it is essential to distinguish the different waterways when
studying the impacts of waterways (Schweighofer, 2014). The extreme weather caused by
global warming is also considered to have positive outcomes for parts of Europe. With
periods without ice and reduced number of floods with reduction of precipitation in the
southern and middle parts of Europe as predicted at the end of the century can result in
economic benefits. On the contrary, it is a non-beneficial long-term solution since then other
parts of Europe will have other problems (Neméthy et.al., 2022) and at the same time threaten
water reserves during the spring and summer season (Edwards & Gretener, 2023). While
winds and visibility are not major obstacles to navigation as most vessels are equipped with
radar, reduced visibility due to snowfall, fog, or rainfall leads to reduced speed for safety
reasons. Vessels without radar are requested to stop navigation, which affects both navigation
and transportation time (Schweighofer, 2014).
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2.2.4 Damage and Ice
Ice occurrence on waterways in northern Europe, during winter season, may damage
navigation signs which can lead to reduced safety of navigation and waterway infrastructure.
Locks may be not operated anymore due to ice jams clogging the lock area or due to freezing
moving parts. If the ice is too thick, inland waterway vessels cannot proceed anymore, and
navigation has to be suspended, sometimes for weeks. However, ice occurrences are reducing
due to global temperature rising, which has been documented to have favourable effects on
navigation conditions (Schweighofer, 2014). According to a report by the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2015), climate change may have
favourable impacts on IWT. The report suggests that impediments to waterway transportation
due to winter icing and ice flows are projected to become less frequent, which could indicate
an improvement in overall waterway availability in areas affected by flooding and icing in the
northern hemisphere. Nonetheless, the report also noted that these findings are dependent on
the specific conditions of various waterway basins (OECD, 2015).
While climate change may bring some advantages to IWT, consecutive events of water
transportation interruption could lead to a loss of confidence in shippers, resulting in the
usage of other modes of transport. As Schweighofer (2014) noted, if such events occur
repeatedly, then businesses may switch to other transport modes that are more
environmentally damaging in terms of carbon emissions, such as road transport. However, the
shift to other modes of transport may also lead to problems related to service quality due to
the shortage of transport capacities and increased transport volumes (Schweighofer, 2014).
Moreover, as noted by Jonkeren et al. (2011), the ability of businesses to adapt their supply
chains quickly enough to manage the extra costs brought on by water transportation
interruptions may vary depending on the origin, density, and material composition of the
freight (Jonkeren et al., 2011). Some businesses may quickly switch to other transportation
modes if waterways close, while others may lack the capacity to do so, leading to significant
disruptions in their ability to transport goods (Welch et al., 2022)
2.3 Countries Inland Waterways and Weather Related Disruptions
This section will give insight to main inland waterways in different countries in Europe and
their respective weather conditions. The following countries are based on the statistics by
Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine's (CCNR) Annual Report 2022 with the
countries with the highest performance IWT freight rate in 2021 (CCNR, 2022).
2.3.1 The Netherlands
The Netherlands has over six thousand kilometres of inland waterways. One and a half
thousand kilometres are navigable and used for transport. The wider waterways as the
Amsterdam-Rijnkanaal, river Waal and the Schelde-Rijnkanaal are used to connect heavy
transport between Amsterdam and Rotterdam and Belgium and Germany. Rivers as Lek and
IJssel, the Ljsselmeer and Maas are smaller waterways connecting provinces within the
12
Netherlands with the purpose for international and national transport (Visser, 2009). The most
trafficked artificial waterway in the world is the Amsterdam-Rhine canal (Rijkswaterstaat,
n.d.a).
The Netherlands is experiencing higher temperatures leading to drier summers with lower
water levels in rivers causing problems for navigation and load and unload processes. The
rise in temperature will most likely have a positive impact on less ice coverage affecting
IWT. There are also signs of wetter climate with more rainfall aggravating to predict across
seasons which have an impact on the navigability and with rising sea level the process of load
and unload can be disturbed. Extremes of low and high-water levels are predicted to cause
disruptions in the future (National Climate Adaptation Strategy, 2016). As big regions of the
Netherlands are below sea level and the country having many rivers is the country exposed to
flood risk and due to climate change is expected to be worse in the future. Without the
existing barriers and dikes would sixty percent of the country be under water (Delta
Programma, n.d.)
2.3.2 Germany
The total length of the German inland waterways is 7300 kilometres where 4500 kilometres
are important for waterborne transportation. The main inland waterways in Germany are the
Rhine6, the Danube, sections of the Weser, Elbe and Oder (FTIP, 2016) . Since Germany is
located in the middle of Europe, they experience both mild air from the Atlantic and dry
continental air resulting in hot summer and cold winters. As a result, seasonal effects are
visible and vary between years. The German climate is affected by higher annual
temperatures resulting in an increased number of warm days as well as fewer days of cold
temperatures. The frequency of extreme heat periods has increased while ice has been a more
unusual phenomenon. Along with rising sea level, Germany is experiencing significant
changes in precipitation patterns. However, in the summer periods of rainfall have not
significantly changed but for the winter season the climate has resembled with more moisture
(ClimateADAPT, 2021a). Flash floods and heavy rain can cause damage to the transport
infrastructure. As projections are showing, an increase in the number of droughts may occur.
Climate change impact on navigability is predicted as low but is expected to change to
medium in recent time. The Federal Waterways and Shipping Administration are responsible
for maintaining good IWT systems (Die Bundesregierung, n.d.a).
2.3.3 Belgium
The Inland waterways in Belgium are the Meuse (Maas) River, the Huat Escaut running from
the south to the north and the Alberta Canal which are the most important waterway in the
north stretching between Antwerp and Maaschtrict. Another important inland waterway is the
Zeekanaal Brussel-Schelde which connects Antwerp to Charleroi and Brussels (CCNR,
6 With its tributaries Neckar, Main, Mosel and Saar.
13
2019). Belgium is divided into three geographical regions with metres above sea level as an
instrument. Low-Belgium is measured up to 100 metres, Middle-Belgium between 100 and
200 metres while High-Belgium is between 200 and 500 metres above sea level.
(ClimateADAPT, 2021b)
The Flanders region in Belgium is affected by droughts, rising temperatures, rising sea level
and extreme precipitation (Verstraeten & Van Keer, 2020). As low-water periods become
more common the risk increases for transport disruptions on inland waterways (National
Climate Commission, 2016) as rivers and channels (National Climate Commission, 2010). In
times of extreme droughts, will the waterway’s capacity decrease and affect the quality
negatively for the Flemish infrastructure (Flemish Government, 2013). As a consequence of
increased floods in recent years the damage and costs has increased (OECD, 2013). Flanders,
northern part of Belgium is impacted the most by climate change in terms of warmer winters,
rising sea level, extreme summer storms and drier summers (Regions4, n.d.). In the future
rising temperatures in winters and summers by 2050 are predicted which may cause increased
numbers of disruptions. In addition, more episodes of heavy rain will occur. With increased
winter precipitation can be perceived as positive in terms of contribution to water recharge
while reduction of the number of rainfalls in summer will lead to reduced availability of
water (OECD, 2013).
2.3.4 France
France public inland waterways are 18,000 kilometres where only 8500 kilometres are
navigable divided into canals, streams and rivers (Gouvernement, 2019). The inland
waterway network is the third largest in Europe behind the Netherlands and Germany
(Ministère de La Transition Écologique et Solidaire, 2019). Voies Navigables de France
(VNF), a public authority, manage the major stretch (6700 kilometres) to ensure continuously
modernisation, operation and maintenance (Gouvernement, 2019) while the other (1300
kilometres) are managed by other public institutes and local communities (Ministère de La
Transition Écologique et Solidaire, 2019). The network includes for instance navigation
dams, locks, tunnels and bridges. 4100 kilometres of the stretch are used for goods
transportation (Gouvernement, 2019) and in 2017, 53 million tonnes of goods were
transported (Ministère de La Transition Écologique et Solidaire, 2019).
Inland waterways in France are currently dealing with extreme weather conditions affecting
the infrastructure and transportation with periods of extreme high and low temperatures,
storms, earthquakes, floods, snow and waves to name a few. In France extreme heat can
cause proliferation of algae leading to navigation problems in rivers due to becoming a
hydraulic brake and disrupt water supplies in some canals resulting in drop of the water level
(Galiana et al, 2015). With lower water levels in inland waterways shippers may experience
disruptions for their logistical processes leading to decreased reliability and increased costs.
The magnitude of the consequences is considered as how well shippers and carriers respond
(Ministère de La Transition Écologique et Solidaire, 2019). Warmer climate might also lead
14
to malfunctions for the automatic control systems controlling the locks and water level. In
addition, fewer days of ice caused higher temperatures can be expected in France in the future
which can be viewed as beneficial where no icebreaker is necessary (Galiana et al, 2015). But
warmer and earlier winters in combination with rapid drop in air temperature can lead to
thicker and rougher ice coverage causing damage to infrastructure and navigation signs
(EEA, 2014). Precipitation has an impact on the French inland waterways which in some
cases can lead to suspension of traffic if measures are taken. Wind can cause disruptions and
problems with safety when equipment and trees lined with the navigable rivers fall in the
river (Galiana et al, 2015).
2.3.5 Romania
The main Inland waterways in Romania are the Danube River and Danube-Black Sea/Poarta
Alba – Midia Navodari canal (Ionescu, 2016). The navigable part of Danube stretches from
Ulm and 2588 kilometres to the Black Sea where 1075 kilometres are located in Rumania.
The country is considered to have a strategic position with its beneficial access to major
routes (Ciortan and Vasilache, 2018). Romania has 28 inland ports where Tulcea, Braila and
Galati are among others (Ionescu, 2016). Intermodal transport is in its early stages in
Romania, but it has a high potential, especially in transit operations (Department of
Sustainable Development, 2018).
Romania is experiencing a warmer climate with higher temperatures both annually and
seasonally in spring, summer and winter. Hot extremes have increased in duration and
frequency leading to records in warmest years in recent time (ClimateADAPT, 2021c).
During periods of low water levels caused by high temperatures Borcea branch is an
alternative route for Danube (Danube Region Strategy, 2014). On the contrary, changes in
precipitation are not significant more than the last hundred years. However the region Danube
Delta shows a small decrease in precipitation in winter and spring (ClimateADAPT, 2021c).
The main threats to the transport network and infrastructure are landslides, floods and torrents
(Ministry of Environment and Climate Change, 2013).
2.3.6 Bulgaria
The Danube River is the only navigable inland waterway in Bulgaria where the Bulgarian
section is 470 kilometres (Council of Ministers the National Climate Change Adaptation
Strategy, 2019) and is shared with Romania. The river stretches from the western border to
Silistra in the east. A part of the stretch is broader and shallower, and the water level is
affected by season (Danube Region Strategy, 2014). Bulgaria has two bigger seaports in
Burgas and Varna while the most important riverports are Ruse and Lom/Vidin (Council of
Ministers the National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy, 2019).
Extreme weathers are expected to increase in magnitude and frequency in Bulgaria where
signs of increased storms, wildfires, droughts, landslides and extreme temperatures and
15
precipitation have been the last decade (Council of Ministers the National Climate Change
Adaptation Strategy, 2019). Generally, for all transport modes, landslides and floods are
expected to have the biggest impact on the infrastructure as a consequence of more extreme
precipitation (The World Bank, 2018). Specifically for Danube has the disruptions been
related to low water depth levels causing navigation problems. The Bulgarian part of Danube
has in recent years on average 70 percent of the days a water level above minimum drought
level (Council of Ministers the National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy, 2019).
Obviously, dredging of the river has not been sufficient enough due to underfunding (Council
of Ministers the National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy, 2019; Danube Region
Strategy, 2014) and insufficient equipment (Danube Region Strategy, 2014). Ageing of port
facilities and equipment have also caused problems in sea and river ports (Council of
Ministers the National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy, 2019).
2.3.7 Hungary
Hungary’s geography is covered with several navigable rivers. The Danube River flows
through the country for a total of 425 kilometres where the first 150 kilometres are in the
north on the border to Slovakia. Tisza has been developed but may be viewed as ineffective
due to the detour to Serbia to be able to navigate between the rivers (World Canals, n.d.). In
Hungary extreme weather events are currently a problem where floods, droughts and heat
waves are happening more often (EEA Grants, 2015). There is no detected trend in increased
annual precipitation, however Hungary is experiencing high flood risk and medium drought
risk (IEA, 2021). On the contrary, droughts can be perceived as a primary vulnerability since
historically droughts have been present (UNDP, n.d.). The future projections are summers
with higher temperatures and less rain and more wet winters with a warmer climate. More
extreme weather events are expected to be more frequent for the whole country, not just for
the transport sector (EEA Grants, 2015).
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3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
In this section will the theory and analytical framework be provided that will be as a tool to interpret
and analyse the data. The theory consists of explanation of key terms and the authors own framework
from existing theories. The last part of this section will mention the categorisation method used for
public policies and initiatives.
3.1 Disruptions on transportation
Studies relating to supply chain and transportation disruptions have been studied extensively
in recent times (Ali et al., 2021; Shen & Aydin, 2014). According to Cambridge Dictionary
(n.d.b), a disruption is defined as ‘the action of preventing something, especially a system,
process, or event, from continuing as usual or as expected’ (Cambridge Dictionary, n.d.b).
Transportation disruptions differ from supply chain disruptions in the way that it concerns the
temporary halt of flow of goods. While supply chain disruptions can shut down production or
reduce operational capacities, disruptions on transportation mainly impacts the flow of goods
and not necessarily the whole supply chain. Therefore, transportation disruption occurs when
the flow of goods is disrupted between two nodes, temporarily stopping the flow of goods
(Wilson, 2007).
There are several factors to which transportation disruptions can occur. Paul et al. (2020)
study on transportation disruptions on supply chain identified critical factors and sub-factors
that disrupt the transportation in a supply chain (Paul et al., 2020). The following Table 1
demonstrates these factors.
Table 1. Self-constructed table over transportation disruption factors and sub-factors.
In addition, Shen and Aydin (2014) studies on transportation disruptions under extreme
weather events highlighted that planning needs to consider risk assessment, mitigation,
respons, preparedness and recovery in order to reduce the effects of such disruptions (Shen &
Aydin, 2014).
17
3.2 Transport risk management
A commonly used managerial tool to cope with operational disruptions and unforeseeable
events is risk management. This involves contingency planning and preparedness for the
handling of potential problems before they occur, and being equipped to handle them when
they disrupt organisations objectives and mission. Traditional risk management is designed to
manage foreseeable events. However, relating to climate related disruptions, these types
could be unforeseeable. As a result, there may exist risks that would not be manageable at
times and companies have realised that they instead need to build on their capabilities to
handle risk. Because of this, many companies have begun to adopt a newer concept, which
has gained popularity among managers; Resilience (Louisot, 2015).
3.3 Resilience capabilities of inland waterway transportation
Resilience, as defined by Pettit, Fiksel and Croxton (2010), comprises three components:
preparedness for unforeseeable events, the ability to adapt when such events occur, and the
capability to recover once they have passed (Pettit, Fiksel & Croxton, 2010). By being
prepared it reduces the probabilities for failure as well as the consequences (Desquesnes et.al,
2016). This approach is believed to enhance a company's ability to withstand pressures and
maintain performance. Thus, it is crucial to consider the implementation of resilience at a
strategic and operational level. While the term ‘resilience’ has been widely studied in supply
chain management research, there has been a lack of research in the context of waterborne
transportation (Lam & Bai 2016). However, IWT supply chains are highly interconnected
with several nodes in their environment, which makes them vulnerable to disruptions that can
affect their operations and performance, due to various uncertainties in the environment
(Pettit, Fiksel & Croxton, 2010). In this study the resilience of shippers and inland ports in
the context of climate change and extreme weather conditions will be analysed.
The analytical framework for this study is informed by Pettit, Fiksel and Croxton's (2010)
research on the 14 capability factors that facilitate the measurement of resilience. The
framework will be applied to investigate the capacity of shippers and inland ports to handle
climate change disruptions. The capability factors, which will be discussed in the following
section, are first explained in relation to supply chain management in general, before being
applied to the context of IWT. While flexibility in sourcing is a crucial capability in a supply
chain context, it has been deemed irrelevant to this report’s research question, which focuses
specifically on the impact of climate change on the IWT industry. Therefore, have this factor
been excluded from the framework and instead all other capabilities that are directly related
to the study focus been included. The remaining factors have been categorised under three
groups and defined in relation to the IWT industry.
18
Table 2. Capability factors categorised in absorptive, adaptive and restorative capabilities.
3.4 Climate policies and measures for inland waterway transportation
The policy measure identified and presented in the result is based on adaptation and
mitigation related measures for the promotion of IWT in relation to climate change impacts.
They are meant to answer the research question about ‘What EU policies and measures exist
to address climate change and extreme weather impact on inland waterway transportation?’.
The measures are identified on EU and country level. The measures were gathered from the
countries with the top IWT freight in Europe and looking into their national policies.
Type of measures
Adaption is a measure described to mitigate vulnerability in the inland navigation sector and
at the same time increase resilience to be prepared for potential climate change effects. These
measures are used to help prepare and adapt to the foreseen consequences without
compromising the activity. Adaptation strategies are preferably a long-term practice that is
cost effective, proportionate and appropriate and usually integrated with other policy actions
19
(IWAC, 2009). There are various types of adaptation measures and the preferable alternative
to select is depending on the expected duration and problems causing the disruption (Zhang,
Lee & Holmer, 2017).
Mitigation is described as a measure to mitigate the consequences of climate change on
inland waterways navigation. The measures are intended to prevent continued global
warming and mitigate the negative impacts through mainly reducing the greenhouse gases
(IWAC, 2009). Mitigating the climate change effects are viewed as emerging but if nothing is
done will climate change most likely continue (Jonkeren et al., 2014). IWAC (2009) points
out the objectives to reduce emissions. First, reduce the emissions related to the barges by for
example encouraging slower speed or the ability to use alternative fuels. Second, mitigate
emissions related to the infrastructure through using green energy or reducing the carbon
footprint. Third and lastly, find ways to mitigate the emissions in other sectors (IWAC, 2009).
3.5 Policy categorisation framework
The categorisation is based on PIANC World Association for Waterborne Transport
Infrastructure where the adaptation strategies for inland waterways are categorised as
institutional, social and physical. The sub-categories are also considered for the type of
policies and measures identified. This categorisation was made based on adaptation and
resilience measures for IWT and are modified to fit the research of this report. First
sub-category, Institutional policies, includes law, policies, economics, governance,
regulations and programming and covers the financial and legal penalties and incentives .
Social policies and measures include people based where management, measures for
information and behavioural, educational and operational are used to raise awareness, train,
warn early, contingency planning and collect data. The last category, physical, are measures
that cover soft and hard engineering measures, maintenance and nature-based solutions which
include structural, technological, engineered, service-based solutions and systems (PIANC,
2020).
20
Table 3. Primary and sub-categories for policy areas.
21
4. METHODOLOGY
This chapter of the report provides an explanation of the process and the reasons behind the chosen
methods and approaches to better understand the study’s purpose. The process for the literature
review will be explained in further detail. In addition, the respondents are presented as well as the
choices made when choosing the sample.
To dissect the research questions for this report, the focus was to get an in-depth
understanding of how inland barge companies and inland port officials are responding in
times of extreme weather and changing water levels. Therefore, the authors used a
combination of literature research and quantitative methods to assess the current state of the
IWT industry actors' resilience capabilities and identification of existing measures and
policies to mitigate or adapt to the consequences of the previously mentioned climate change
disruptions.
4.1 Research design
The research design was executed in different phases to go from receiving an overview to get
into more specific research. At the beginning of the research period, an inductive approach
was chosen, to generate themes for the qualitative data being collected and help to fulfil this
purpose of the research (Creswell, 2009). Following, the focus was to research about IWT in
Europe and the climate change impact to receive an overview of the topic. The results from
the research background indicated problems for the inland waterways industry which led to
further research of the topic. A literature review, based on previous research and articles, was
done to generate a wider understanding of how climate change is affecting IWT and its
consequences. A general-to-specific approach has been used to easier follow and understand
the topic (Saunders et.al., 2019).
Illustrated in Figure 2 below is an overview of the research design. By identifying policies
and measures from the EU and the European countries in the context of this report and by
categorising them using the framework will together with countries’ experienced climate
change impact from the literature review generate further discussion and conclusions for the
report’s second research question. On the contrary, the interviewees perspectives of their own
capabilities to be resilience in the phases to prepare, adapt to and recover from climate
change disruptions are further categorised with the framework. Together with perspectives of
climate and extreme weather related disruptions on IWT presented in the literature review
chapter created discussions and findings for the report’s third research question. Lastly, the
categorised policies and measures as well as the resilience capabilities and parts of the
literature review generated findings to answer the report’s main research question (RQ1).
22
Figure 3. Overview of the research design.
4.2 Data collection
4.2.1 Identification of policies and measures
Research was conducted to provide insights in policies and measures published by the EU
and European countries concerned by IWT. The webpage ClimateADAPT and governments
and their transport related authorities homepages were used to find specific documents
mentioning measures and policies for countries geographically covered with IWT. Other
sources have been collected from organisations outside of the European Union as the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPPC) and Inland Navigation Europe (INE). All
chosen policies and measures were based on their direct or indirect connection to IWT and
climate change and extreme weather impacts. Indirect policies and measures are the ones that
include a broader aspect of the topic, such as all transport modes or water management for
transport and other sectors in a country.
23
4.2.2 Interviews
The data from the interviews are considered as qualitative verbal data (Saunders et al, 2019)
and collected as primary data using a case study approach with a special focus. Considering
that this area of research is less studied, the chosen approach is to explain how inland barge
companies and inland ports proceed in relation to climate change and extreme weather
disruptions. A case study approach focuses on the present patterns and allows for in-depth
research (Patel & Davidsson, 2021). The authors aimed to understand inland barge companies
and inland ports current state of knowledge of handling disruptions through interviews.
4.2.2.1 Sampling
The key respondents, also referred to as the population for the study, were inland barge
companies and inland port officials that deal with IWT. The decision to interview port
officials is to get a wider understanding of the IWT industry and the challenges that inland
barge companies face on port terminals. To easier know which respondents to contact the
population need to be identified. As soon as the category of respondents were decided, the
process started with online searches for inland barge companies and ports that would be of
interest for the research. The selected sample should represent the whole population and fit to
the reports objectives and research questions (Saunders et al., 2019). The criteria were
companies and ports operating in a European country and had a significant proportion of
operations on inland waterways. Since the goal was to investigate the awareness and
measures used to handle extreme weather disruptions, the collection of respondents was
based on what the authors could find from company webpages. News articles to find
companies experiencing these kinds of disruptions were not used since the result could be
bias.
European ports webpages were used to identify companies operating in the port that would be
suitable as respondents and Google was used to find other alternatives. After suitable
companies were found, security measures of controlling their webpages were used, to be sure
the companies would fit in the research. 32 possible companies and organisations were found.
The next step was to find an appropriate respondent within the company. Some web pages
included information with contact information to individual positions. The chosen
respondents were those with a position working with IWT. Other companies only provided
general contact information which was used to further find a specific respondent working
with IWT.
As soon as the contact list was finalised, the companies and individual respondents were
contacted via email with a template including information about the purpose, content of the
report and instructions of the interviews and how the respondents could contribute to the
report. The goal was to gather six interviews where three were working within ports while the
other three were barge companies. As only two responded to the email a reminder email was
sent. After a week without enough interview respondents, the authors started to contact them
again but this time by calling them. This method was productive, and received in the end six
interviews as wanted. As soon as the respondents accepted an interview another email with
24
zoom-link and information of the time and date were sent out to get confirmation the
respondents were available at that time.
4.2.2.2 Semi-structured interviews
Semi-structured interviews were used as primary qualitative data to allow probing and
gaining in-depth answers into possible grey areas about this topic (Patel & Davidsson, 2021).
The interview procedure consisted of asking open questions. The width of this topic cannot
be understood with a simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’ and therefore requires longer and developed
answers. Two respondents asked for the questions beforehand which were sent via email a
few days before the interview. Semi structured interviews can be conducted online (Saunders
et al., 2019) and since the respondents were located in other countries than the authors the
interviews were conducted through Zoom. Before the interview started, the respondent was
provided with an introduction about the purpose of the thesis report and the interview as well
as asked if they wanted to be anonymous and if they accepted the interviews being recorded.
The interviews were recorded through Zoom but also backed-up by using a mobile phone for
times with technical issues. To start the interview, the respondent had to present themselves
and their company or organisation. Afterwards, the questions from the interview guide (See
Appendix 1) were presented in different order depending on which direction the interview
took. There are three separate interview guides to fit the three groups of respondents. One
was for the respondent working within an inland barge company, the other one for the
respondents working with inland ports and the last one for the EFIP. During the interview,
follow up questions were asked to understand it in more depth. Furthermore, the time span
for the interviews differs between 45 and 75 minutes depending on how much knowledge and
information the respondents could provide. One of the respondents was unavailable for a
zoom meeting and was therefore asked to answer the questions through a questionnaire. The
results from the interviews are presented together with parts of the literature review in the
Empirical findings and analysis. This is later discussed and presented in the conclusion.
4.2.2.3 Ethical Considerations
Patel and Davidson (2021) describe the importance of the respondent's willingness to answer
to give a correct result and to clarify what the information will be used for (Patel & Davidson,
2021). Therefore, before the recording of the interviews started the respondents were told the
purpose and usage of the information and knowledge they provided during the interview as
well as if the interviews could be recorded. The respondents were also asked if they want to
be anonymous to give them the chance to speak freely if there would be some sensitive
information and give the results more in-depth information. All the respondents accepted the
recording from the premises presented and one respondent chose to be anonymous. As Patel
and Davidson highlight. when a respondent wants to be anonymous there cannot be any
information provided to be able to identify the company (Patel & Davidsson, 2021).
Therefore, have this been taken into account and the information about the anonymous
company have been handled with sensitivity and all information was removed as soon as it
was converted and presented in the result section.
25
4.2.2.4 Respondents
The respondents in this report are three inland barge companies, two port officials and one
representative from a federation for inland ports. The Figure 3 below is showing the
geographical area the respondents are operating and where they have offices or terminals. In
addition, the coloured lines represent the inland waterways they are operating on.
Figure 3. Self-constructed figure over the offices and waterways the respondents operate.
Contargo Logistics BV
The interview person representing Contargo in this report is Cok Vinke, the Managing
Director of the company. He operates in their office located in Zwijndrecht, Netherlands, with
the focus on IWT. Vinke has been working within the transport sector for approximately 35
years. Contargo is a large company focusing on international transport on the river Rhine to
Switzerland, France, and mainly Germany. In addition to the office in Zwijndrecht, where the
transport planning for inland barges is taking place, the company has other offices in the
German cities Hamburg, Döhlau, Kehl and Offenburg and in Antwerp, Belgium. Contargo
offers beyond, barge shipping, rail and road transport options for intermodal container
transports. The company is a part of company Rehnus, a logistics provider with a worldwide
network of offices and warehouses among other things.
26
Figure 4. Map over Contargo's operation routes. (Source: Van Berkel Logistics, n.d.)
Van Berkel Logistics
Michel Van Dijk has since 2005 been the director of Van Berkel Logistics. Before he started
working in Van Berkel Logistics, he had his own inland barge company. Van Dijk has 35
years of experience since he started his career within inland shipping in 1988. Van Berkel is a
family-owned logistics provider started in 2005. They operate three inland container
terminals in the Netherlands located in Oss, Cuijk and Veghel. The company is sailing daily
with seven barges between their terminals and the Port of Rotterdam with container and bulk
goods. For the transportation they sail for instance on the Delta of the River Rhine
(Rhine-Meuse-Scheldt river) and the river Maas. In addition to the inland barge transport,
Van Berkel owns 50 trucks to deploy local deliveries and make night and urgent transports to
seaports. As part of their intermodal services, they provide logistics services as
transportation, transhipment and storage (Van Berkel Logistics, n.d.).
27
Figure 5. Map over Van Berkel’s operation routes (Source: Private).
Respondent 3, inland barge company
This interview person is the director for a liquid tanker barge company based in Rotterdam,
the Netherlands. Before the interviewee became a director, he worked with the technical
operations within the company and before even starting at this company, he worked as a
service engineer with propulsion. They are mainly operating in the Netherlands, Belgium and
Germany where they are sailing in the Amsterdam, Rotterdam and Antwerp (ARA) region,
on the Albert Canal and the rivers Rhine and Maas. The barge company sails only on inland
waterways and are owning their own tanker barges.
European federation of inland ports (EFIP)
Turi Fiorito is the director of the European Federation of Inland Ports. He has worked within
the sector for four and a half years. EFIP represents approximately 200 ports across Europe
covering the area from Portugal in the west to Finland in the east. They focus mostly on
European policy questions, but also European inland shipping development on a more
general scale. Their priorities are mainly about understanding how inland ports as hinterland
connectors can be the enablers of green logistics through waterways and multimodal
transport. At the same time, they want to be a place for sustainable industries to develop.
EFIP is working with the development of inland ports as enablers of green logistics through
making sure that European policy frameworks allow this kind of development and receive
needed funding from public entities to be able to realise it.
Port of Antwerp Bruges
Marjan Beelen is the mobility advisor in the mobility department in the Port of Antwerp
Bruges, specialising in barge transport. She has worked with IWT in the Port of Antwerp
Bruges for 12 years and is located in Antwerp, Belgium. Previous experience, she worked in
the University of Antwerp as a researcher within the transportation field on different transport
modes. At the same time as she did the research, Beelen worked on her PhD focusing on IWT
and finished in 2011.
28
The Port of Antwerp Bruges is the second biggest port in Europe. Since 2022, the ports in
Bruges and Antwerp are considered as one unit even though they are spread geographically.
Bruges is located in the north-east of Belgium while Antwerp is in the northern part of the
country. 90 to 95 percent of their IWT volumes are done in Antwerp. The fleet for barges
varies in size and types and includes segments as containers, breakbulk, dry cargo, tankers
and ro-ro (Port of Antwerp Bruges, n.d.b).
Port of Duisburg
Alexander Garbar is the Head of Corporate Development and Strategy for the Port of
Duisburg and has had the position for approximately one year. Before, he was the Project
Manager and Deputy Head Corporate Development in the Port of Duisburg for almost five
years. The port of Duisburg is the largest inland port in the world and a leading logistics hub
in Europe (DuisPort, n.d.a). In addition, the port is the leading inland container hub in the
world with its over four million TEUs handled every year. Over 20.000 inland vessels are
dispatched to the port per year and approximately 2000 shallow draft vessels are also entering
the port. The Port of Duisburg can handle all types of freight (DuisPort, n.d.b).
4.2.3 Literature review
The literature review was conducted to provide insights in the areas of IWT, European river
networks and ports and climate change effects on inland waterways in Europe. The materials
used are primarily primary literature sources as academic articles and reports. The primary
sources were collected through using Scopus, Google Scholar and the University of
Gothenburg’s library online service ‘Supersök’ to find material for the specific topics. Some
secondary sources as textbooks (Patel & Davidsson, 2021; Saunders et al., 2019) were
physically lent from the University of Gothenburg’s economic library. The search for sources
included the keywords climate change in Europe, inland water transport, policies on inland
waterways and measures to handle extreme weather disruptions.
4.3 Data analysis
Policies and measures
From the results chapter policies and measures were identified with the criterias of being
presented from a country’s government and involving ways to either mitigate the
consequences or adapt to the current extreme weather conditions for IWT in Europe. As
Belgium is divided into Wallonia and Flanders, the regional measures and policies were
considered as representing the country because of Belgium’s structure where the regions are
responsible to handle the development of measures and policies. As policies and measures
have been identified in the results, the authors needed to find a way to analyse them to be
able to categorise them. First, the policies and measures were divided between mitigation and
adaptation where the first one considers measures to slow down the development of climate
change while the latter refers to measures adapting to the existing conditions. After that, the
separate groups of measure were categorised into Institutional, Economic and Structure after
the criterias presented in the Theoretical Framework.
29
Resilience capabilities
After the interviews were conducted they were transcribed to easier be able to analyse the
results. The authors read the transcriptions to identify which responses should be presented in
each category. In the section ’5.3 The resilience capabilities of the inland waterway
transportation actors’ of the Empirical Results and Analysis, are the results from interviews
divided into which of the resilience capabilities the response considers. The authors have
interpreters if the responses are related to the capabilities based on the framework and its
description for every category.
4.4 Validity and Reliability
Validity is to ensure that the research is executed in the way the authors intended it to (Patel
& Davidsson, 2021). For this study, the authors considered the validity in the used qualitative
method. For internal validity, the used methods have been taken into consideration to
generate the best answers to answer the research questions. While there are many methods
that could have been used, the authors believe that the combination of methods and choices of
techniques are valid methods for answering the reports research questions.
Reliability refers to being sure the methods used are done in a reliable way (Patel &
Davidsson, 2021). The reliability of the study will compare to how the findings relate to the
reality of the topic of the report. To keep reliability of the study high, the authors kept in mind
the research questions along the whole study and made sure to ask relevant questions to the
respondents to bring accurate results. The authors made sure to ask relevant questions and
based it on the conducted literature study before writing the interview questions or
conducting further data collections.
4.5 Limitations
In this report, there are several limitations that need to be considered since they may have an
impact on the presented results. First, the result in this report is based on six interviews and
there might be an aggregate to suggest that these respondents can represent the whole
industry as their personal feelings and thoughts might not be representative of the whole
industry to some extent. This is because the respondents are compromised by their own
subjective experiences. However, these respondents share long work experiences and
knowledge within their field. Second, as there is a time restriction, the number of interviews
conducted are therefore limited to six. Moreover, there might be missing policies in the data
collection policies in the EU, countries and cities. Third, as there is a risk for wrong
interpretation or missing some valuable information about the public measures included
countries and cities because of different languages in the documents. Some web pages and
documents have been translated using Google Translate and could be a subject for wrong
translations. Fourth, some documents have been locked or missing which can have affected
the results and the number of measures if these documents. Fifth, this research has only been
30
conducted based on online sources and the authors are aware that there might be some
measures that are not presented online. However, the restrictions in this part have been
limited and the authors have been able to access the majority of the data found. Lastly,
another limitation is the report’s broad scope, which can leave room for going further
in-depth to the topic. However, the aim is to explore this topic which is less researched and
support further research by other authors.
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5. EMPIRICAL RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
In this chapter, the empirical results gathered from the qualitative data collection and semi-structured
interviews will be presented and analysed based on the theoretical framework. The first part of this
chapter will focus on the findings of adaptation and mitigation related policies concerning IWT and
help answer RQ2. The second part will focus on the resilience capabilities of inland barge companies
and help answer RQ3.
5.1 Climate Policies for Inland Waterway Transportation in the European Union
This section of the empirical result and analysis is meant to answer the sub-research question;
What EU policies and measures exist to address climate change and extreme weather impact
on inland waterway transportation? The findings of policies and measures related to IWT
and climate change as well as extreme weather conditions in the EU reached a total of 58
policies and measures. These policies and measures are mainly divided into two parts,
adaptation or mitigation related. Furthermore, the governance level where the policies and
measures have been developed are presented at the EU and country level. Findings show that
the type and amount of policies relating to this topic have been varying in the different
governance levels. Further elaboration on the variations at the different governance levels
will be presented through the following sections in this chapter. It is important to note that
some policies may include both mitigation and adaptation related measures and because of
this the authors have categorised based on whether the core focus is mainly adaptation or
mitigation related. The full list of policies and measures identified can be found in the
Appendix 2.
In terms of adaptation policies and measures, the differences in their focus was mainly found
to depend on the environmental conditions concerned in the region. Findings also show that
there have been more of such policies and measures regarding IWT in the western part of
Europe compared to the eastern part. Furthermore, policy making at the EU level has acted as
a driving force and starting point for European countries and cities in developing their own
IWT and climate change related policies. However, some countries have taken their own
measures, without adopting the transnational policies of the EU.
The climate and extreme weather policies that have been adopted by the EU regarding IWT
show that there have been more focus on mitigation policies rather than adaptation. The
mitigation policies that have been developed mainly focused on decarbonisation and shifting
the fuel use of IWT vessels to alternative choices that would be less contributing to
environmentally damaging emissions. The mitigation policies also involved funding
opportunities for IWT actors in alleviating the challenge to shift fuel use. The division of
mitigation and adaptation policies are shown in the Figure 6 below.
32
Figure 6. Adaptation and mitigation policies developed by the EU.
In terms of adaptation policies and measures which emphasises on adapting the IWT sector to
the effects and consequences of climate change and frequency of extreme weather conditions,
13 policies and measures have been identified in this area. From these findings, the
adaptation measures and policies are seen to mainly be adopted during the 2010s. The policy
that has been of large impact on the focus on IWT regarding these mentioned issues, are the
Trans-European Transport Network (Ten-T) adopted in 2013 by the European Commission
and highlights the need to strengthen the IWT network in Europe. In addition, the European
Commission adopted in April 2013 the EU Adaptation strategy with the aim of preparing
Europe for current and future climate impacts. Thus, the strategy encouraged countries in
taking preparing measures for prevailing and future climate change impacts (National
Climate Commision, 2016).
Figure 7. Types of Adaptation policies and initiatives in the EU according to the categorisation
framework.
Based on the categorisation framework, the findings show that the type of adaptation policies
by the EU are mainly relating to institutional policies and measures. Institutional policies
relate to law and regulatory frameworks, financial incentives and decision-making initiatives
to incorporate policies and measures to national and regional levels (PIANC, 2020). An
example of this is the EU’s funding instrument called Connecting Europe Facility (CEF) to
33
realise transport infrastructure policies with the EU. One division regards IWT where they
fund different projects (European Commision, n.d.d).
The second type of policies relate to physical policies and measures which covers
maintenance, nature-based solutions which includes technological and structural systems. An
example of such policy is the Danube Region Strategy on fairway rehabilitation and
maintenance master plan which was a cooperating effort by countries along the Danube river
in improving the mobility and multimodality in the IWT network. Measures such as dredging
and maintenance of infrastructure on locks were performed to cope with unstable and
unpredictable water levels on the waterways (Danube Region Strategy, 2014).
The least type of policies identified according to the categorisation framework relate to social
policies and measures. These types of measures are people-based with management and
measures for information being used to raise awareness and assist in contingency planning.
An example of such a measure is the European Climate Adaptation Platform Climate-Adapt7
which was created in 2012 by the European Commission and the European Environmental
Agency (EEA) to provide information and data for users to support climate change
adaptation. The platform includes a significant amount of data on IWT and climate change
adaptation processes in by regions and countries in the EU (Climate-ADAPT, n.d.).
5.2 Climate Policies and Measures in EU Countries
The following section will present climate policies and measures developed by countries in
the EU. The choice of countries to study were based on the highest number of total inland
water tonnage in freight volume in Europe. The following countries contribute the highest to
EU’s inland waterway transport. The following sections will provide descriptions on the type
of policies that exist and the context relating to them.
In general, the policies that refer to the IWT and climate change and extreme weather, mainly
focus on Adaptation policies and measures, in contrast to policies and measures developed by
the EU. Many of these policies and measures have been founded on the basis of policies at
the EU level. The findings show that there are more policies relating to IWT in the western
part of Europe and those are also the countries with the highest inland waterway freight
transport. The illustration below shows the percentage of mitigation and adaptation policies
and measures developed by EU countries.
7 Climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu
34
Figure 8. Adaptation and mitigation policies developed by EU countries.
In terms of adaptation policies, the type of policies that countries develop are mainly relating
to physical policies. Such policies involve maintenance of IWT infrastructure, water
management and development of information system technologies. The second type of
policies developed are social policies which focus on engagement of relevant actors in the
issues and spreading awareness. Countries which tend to have a less focus on IWT and
climate related policies are found to initially develop social policies to raise awareness of
issues and put efforts in gathering information about the issue. The last type of policies and
measures are related to institutional policies and involve developing regulatory frameworks
to cope with above mentioned issues. The following illustration shows the division of
adaptation policies that are developed by EU countries.
Figure 9. Types of adaptation policies and measures developed by EU countries.
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5.2.1 Climate adaptation and Policies in Netherlands
The findings show a majority of adaptation measures relating to IWT in the Netherlands.
Most of the policies and measures related to physical policies and specifically structure such
as maintaining waterways through dredging and widening of waterways. Rijkswaterstaat is
part of the Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management and develops a program for
transport networks to be resilient including inland waterways (ClimateADAPT, 2021a). They
have established initiatives for different rivers to manage flood risks and secure navigability.
One current project is the broadening of the Twente-kanaal to ease the navigability for
transportation. By dredging and maintaining locks and dams the canals will be deeper to
allow navigation and the channels will keep more of its water to maintain a higher water level
(Rijkswaterstaat n.d.b). The Dutch Government is trying to engage more private actors in
undertaking measures. However some municipalities have developed adoption policies and
strategies. For example, Rotterdam has the Rotterdam Climate Initiative and Amsterdam the
Amsterdam Rainproof (ClimateADAPT, 2021a). Another measure for IWT is the project
Maaswerken which aims to deepen and broaden the rivers and raise bridges to allow
navigation of bigger barges and protect infrastructure from floods through building of
retention areas and flood channels and strengthening dikes and quays. The rivers Zandmaas,
Maas route and Frenmaas (non-navigable) are the focus of the project (Rijkswaterstaat,
n.d.c).
Furthermore, types of institutional policies were identified. In 2007, the first National
Adaptation Strategy (NAS) was published together with the Delta Programme on flood safety
and freshwater supply. This strategic document did not present any adaptation measures in
relation to transportation. However, the second publication of NAS in 2016 highlights
impacts from climate change on IWT and the need for concrete measures, due to lack of
understanding about the appropriate measures. However, government authorities have
undertaken projects to address the climate change impacts (National Climate Adaptation
Strategy, 2016). In the case of heavy rain leading to flooding, pumping the water can be the
solution. In times of prediction of heavy precipitation, the pumping activity can be done in
advance to create a buffer of water for times of lower water levels. Reserving the water has
become more important in recent years (Rijkswaterstaat, 2023).
Adaptation policies are also made at the city-level in the Netherlands aimed at increasing
early warning signals for extreme weather conditions, as well as maintaining infrastructure to
prepare for such disruptions. The city of Rotterdam recognises a change in climate and the
effects and consequences in the city e.g excess of water flows or flooding etc. In order to
respond to these challenges, the city set up the Rotterdam Climate Proof Programme in 2008,
with the aim of making Rotterdam resilient to climate change in 2025. The city is doing this
through intertwining spatial development with climate adaptation in urban development. The
city focuses on creating a basis for innovative solutions, investing primarily in the city port’s,
the Stadshavens district for adaptive building and construction, as well as representing
Rotterdam internationally as a climate proofing city and to establish international knowledge
and partnerships. Their Rotterdam approach to climate adaptation is that it offers economic
36
opportunity and competitive advantage when it can be resilient to climate change disruptions
(Rotterdam Climate Initiative, n.d.). In terms of IWT, the Rotterdam Climate Policy from
2008 does not mention IWT or measures for climate adaptation for transportation. However,
the policy recognises sea level rises to be a consequence for IWT. On the other hand, the
Rotterdam Climate change Adaptation Strategy from 2013 which is a continuation of
previous adaptation strategies to create a climate proof city, raises several extreme weather
conditions from climate change e.g periods of droughts, low water levels and periods of sea
level rises etc. The measures relating to IWT concerns the effect of low water levels and
droughts and aims to build more robust and resilient water systems, The measures include
making room for water in dikes, canals and waterways, controlling water levels and
increasing infiltration capacity of the ground and making the city act like a sponge.
Furthermore, the policy measures also mentions that measures to combat effects to the
obstruction to shipping includes making temporary use of other modes of transport and
carrying lighter cargo. Lastly, the policy also raised the need for further research on this topic
(C40 Cities, n.d.).
Rotterdam has a history of integrating land use and flood control, with water management in
relation to natural conditions (C40 Cities, n.d.). The port of Rotterdam is the largest port in
Europe with approximately 30.000 vessels passing through yearly. The port is situated in an
ideal geographical location for enabling inland shipping and can be accessed via the river
Maas or Rhine. The city and port of Rotterdam in Netherlands supports and works towards
increasing the competitive position of IWT and shifting more freight transport to inland
waterways as well as facilitating a transition to zero-emission IWT. The port of Rotterdam
has welcomed the European commission’s initiative, the NAIADES III Action Plan on
‘boosting future-proof European IWT’. The port also supports the commission's proposal to
establish a cooperation framework for IWT within the revision of the TEN-T regulation (Port
of Rotterdam, 2021). Moreover, the port is in present working on optimising the handling of
growing container transport and creating efficient flows of transport for inland container
barge companies through the so-called Barge Performance Monitor (Port of Rotterdam, n.d.).
5.2.2 Climate Adaptation and Policies in Germany
Findings identified several policies and measures concerning IWT, however, many were
referring to mitigation related policies. In terms of adaptation, institutional policies and
measures concerning IWT were adopted by the German Government. In 2008, Germany
adopted a Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change to create a framework to adapt to the
climate change impacts in the country. The strategy mainly addresses the Federation's role
and guidelines to ease understanding for other actors to assess risks, identify needed actions
and form objectives to develop and execute adaptation measures (BMUV, n.d.). The German
Adaptation Strategy (DAS) is used to improve adaptive capacity of the systems and identify
measures to handle the climate change impact. Fifteen fields of actions are considered where
transport is one of them. As draughts were projected to become more frequent, the report
37
highlighted the importance of analysing the risks associated with low water levels to develop
a strategy of handling the risks across various sectors (Die Bundesregierung, n.d.a).
In periods of extreme low water levels, the goal is to find optimised handling strategies in
ways to adapt the transport system and optimise transport and cargo containers. Proposed
suggestions include investigating transfer options and fully utilising storage capacities. Other
ideas to invest in are to develop suitable vessels to better cope with low water periods, make
the barge systems more modern and digitalise inland shipping. These approaches could be
promoted through supportive measures. As the future predictions anticipate longer periods of
droughts there is a desire to develop a prioritise hierarchy when there are water resource
shortages. The result would be an easier process when prioritising between for instance
inland shipping, water resources for fires and agriculture. In the report, the role of future
projections is identified. By analysing the climate impact based on available hazard maps,
projections and data until year 2100 the potential hazards and climate influences can be
recognised (Die Bundesregierung, n.d.a).
Furthermore, physical policies were also identified. Rhine low-water Action Plan, highlights
eight response actions for the Rhine’s and its tributaries' industrial facilities to handle climate
challenges. The actions are divided into four categories, infrastructure, transport and logistics,
provision of information and long-term solutions. Representatives within inland shipping and
major industrial companies located in the Rhine developed the action plan in turn to ensure
reliable transport conditions on the Rhine (Die Bundesregierung, n.d.a).
Concerning social policies, another project concerning global warming’s impact on
waterways is the research programme; KLIWAS - Impacts of Climate Change on Waterways
and Navigation in Germany. The report presents the climate change impacts on the Elbe,
Rhine, Danube and Estuaries (Holtmann et al, 2012) as well as provides evidence of future
conditions for navigation on coastal routes and inland waterways. The most important lesson
learned is the increased awareness among transport agency stakeholders about climate
models' meaning and what they provide. The project also helped with understanding other
solutions to respond to climate change which for example is increased storage capacity.
Transport operators had not considered these issues before. However they got aware of the
benefits of taking additional economic risks when not being flexible in their operations (EEA,
2014).
Adaptation policies and measures for IWT in Germany were mainly concerning physical
policies. The city of Hamburg has been in the forefront in promoting climate mitigation and
adaptation steps for several years. The first climate plan was adopted in 2013 in its efforts to
make the city a ‘Climate Smart City’. The city recognises that climate change is already
affecting the city’s quality of life and that extreme weather events are more likely to become
frequent. The climate plan which has been updated in recent years has served as a model for
other cities in developing their own strategies and plans. However, there are few cities that
have been unique in the way of combining adaptation and mitigation measures in an
integrated way, like Hamburg has. The plan is aimed at increasing the city’s resilience
38
through e.g water management to minimise damage from flooding and heavy rainfall in
coming decades. In terms of IWT, the Action Plan has a long-term goal for the transportation
mode up until 2050. The plan outlines the measures for storm surge and flood protection on
inland waterways to prevent damage from the effects of climate change. Additionally, the
plan aims to develop strategies for efficient low-emission or zero-emission commercial
transport, by expanding intelligent transport systems for inland shipping and developing
intelligent transport networks which is mentioned further down. The plan recognizes that a
collaborative approach is necessary to address the complex and multifaceted challenges of
climate change and is planned to be developed across departments and incorporating districts
and cities stakeholders in the implementation. The sea port hinterland traffic is crucial for the
port's added value. However, the port faces tough competition from other ports in the
northern region and the modernisation and expansion of infrastructure has been highlighted to
be made a key priority in the Federal Transport Infrastructure Plan (FTIP). More specifically,
Hamburg and neighbouring ports in the Czech republic have called for a mean navigation
channel depth in the waterways to be kept stable during the whole year. The condition has
been deemed to be insufficient and contrary to what has been promised by the federal
government. The city believes that IWT would double its function as a less-environmental
damaging carrier in their waterways (Port of Hamburg, n.d.).
5.2.3 Climate Adaptation and Policies in Belgium
The institutional policies identified concerns a national adaptation strategy such as in the
previous countries. The earlier edition of the National Adaptation Strategy from 2010,
sections as marine, coastal and tidal areas are mentioned as well as flooding effects on natural
and erosion areas. However, no measures or climate change impacts on transportation are
presented (National Climate Commission, 2010). Moreover, the subsequent adaptation
strategy (2017 to 2020) includes the transportation sector but nothing specific on IWT. It is
important to note that the regions are the authorities responsible for the transport sector in
Belgium, except the national railway which is the responsibility of the federal state. However
adaptation measures to climate change for all transportation are only addressed in Federal and
Flanders regions and seen missing in the national, Wallonia and Brussels's adaptation plans.
The strategy focuses on water management measures which helps to mitigate the
consequences from climate change on inland waterways (National Climate Commission,
2016). Research on the adaptation policies and measures concerning physical and social
policies and measures were mainly lacking on the national level and later found in the local
regional level. Furthermore, some regions focused more on adaptation policies and measures
concerning IWT and others less.
One of the regions which had a more focus on IWT and adaptation measures were the
Flanders region in Belgium. Flanders is the Dutch-speaking region in the northern part of
Belgium. Although not being the largest region in terms of land mass, it's the most populated
region with 68.4 percent of the country’s population (Regions4, n.d.). Flanders is also the
most energy intensive region in western Europe because of its industrialisation and dense
39
transport infrastructure. The region is said to be most affected by climate change in terms of
drier summers, storms, high precipitation during winter and sea level rises. The region of
Flanders has historically made efforts to limit climate impacts, for instance by developing
their first Flemish Climate Plan. Today, their latest policy is the Flemish Climate Policy Plan
(VKP) from 2013 to 2020. The plan provides an overview of climate-related policies and
measures in Flanders and is split into two plans: The Flemish Adaptation Plan and the
Flemish Mitigation Plan (Flemish Government, 2013). The Flemish Adaptation Plan (VAP)
emphasises the importance of resilience and cost-effectiveness in determining which
adaptation policies to invest in and implement. The plan recognises that the cost of adaptation
must be lower than the cost of the damage prevented and that prompt responses to improve
resilience may be less costly than waiting in some cases. The VAP also adopts a no-regrets
approach, prioritising robust and even low-tech and simple adaptation measures. The plan
acknowledges the important role of citizens, businesses, and other levels of government in
adapting to climate change and reducing vulnerability. The VAP and the Flemish Mitigation
Plan (VMP) are aligned with Flanders' long-term Vision 2050, which aims to localise the
Sustainable Development Goals in the region. Both plans mention IWT and related measures
to climate change impacts. The plan acknowledges the smaller share of IWT in relation to
other modes of transport and proceeds to present measures and implementations of the Inland
Navigation Action Plan to promote IWT, through adaptation and mitigation actions such as
incentives, grant-system for emission-reducing technologies, and shore power development.
The Flemish Climate Policy Plan also adds the measure of researching further support
measures for IWT (Regions4, n.d.).
5.2.4 Climate Adaptation and Policies in France
Findings have shown existing institutional policies in France, especially concerning
regulation and governance. France's national adaptation strategy does not mention
waterborne transport or IWT (ONERC, 2007) while their National Plan for Climate Change
Adaptation (PNACC), established in 2011, has a section covering transport systems and
infrastructures for all transport modes (EEA, 2014). In total, four action plans are identified
where IWT is concerned on three of them along with other modes of transport. The first
action plan concerns reviewing and adapting technical standards for construction,
maintenance and operation of transport networks (infrastructures and equipment) in
continental France and French overseas territories where the measures are to visualise climate
change scenarios to be prepared with guidelines when climate hazards occur and propose
modifications to existing standard documents (Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable
Development, Transport and Housing, n.d.) through revision and adaption (EEA, 2014). The
second action plan refers to defining a harmonised methodology to diagnose the vulnerability
of infrastructures and land, sea and airport transport systems (Ministry of Ecology,
Sustainable Development, Transport and Housing, n.d.) to develop a methodology to assess
vulnerabilities (EEA, 2014). It has been notified that this has been missing due to climate
change being a recent issue. However historically has risk analysis been more common in
particular areas of the network and type of extreme weather. The methodology is proposed to
40
be designed for specific points and networks including rivers (Ministry of Ecology,
Sustainable Development, Transport and Housing, n.d.). The third action plan concerns
establishing a statement of vulnerability for land, sea and air transport networks in continental
France and in French overseas territories and preparing appropriate and phased response
strategies to local and global climate change issues. To identify to which extent vulnerable
infrastructures like rivers and ports can handle extreme weather. As extreme weather is
expected to increase in frequency, response strategies need to be established where the risk
level is considered (Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development, Transport and Housing,
n.d.; EU, 2014).
Furthermore, social policies have also been identified. In 2018, another National Plan for
Climate Change Adaptation was published considering all transport modes. The first two
measures contribute to continuing analysing the risks and adaptation technical standards as
mentioned in the previous PNACC. Another measure is to create a network with exports to
easier share information and knowledge to learn from each other. The national plan also
includes a measure to forecast climate change on major global routes to assess the impact on
ports, gateways and the transport system (General Directorate for Infrastructure, Transport
and the Sea, 2019). Physical policies have also been identified where the French government
created a project to build climate resilient and safe maritime ports (Horizon Europe, 2023).
5.2.5 Climate Adaptation and Policies in Romania
The findings show that the focus on adaptation policies and measures are relatively limited
and mostly concerns social policies in order to increase information for adaptation. Romania
had a national adaptation strategy between 2013 and 2020 with a holistic view over all
sectors’ climate change impact in the country. For example, energy, water resources and flood
protection, public health and transportation are considered in the strategy. In the report a
real-time warning system is pointed out as necessary to alert for landslides, water levels and
extreme weather. Recommendations are to continuously monitor the weather-related events
on a local and regional level to be prepared and respond to mitigate the consequences for
transport activities. However, any specific inland waterways are not mentioned in the national
adaptation strategy. In terms of mitigation measures, the strategy addresses reduction of
greenhouse gas emissions to contribute to the national targets and adapt to the EU’s climate
change policies (Ministerul Mediului Și Schimbărilor Climatice, 2013).
Furthermore, there is more need for information concerning IWT and adaptation in Romania.
Romania’s Sixth National Communication on Climate Change report implies the need for
further research within the transport sector to identify climate change impact on different
transport modes and the resilience of new techniques to ensure mitigation of consequences of
projected and unforeseen climate change events. The report also suggests creation of risk
maps to help in the process when prioritising climate change adaptation measures (Ministry
of Environment and Climate Change, 2013; Ministerul Mediului Și Schimbărilor Climatice,
2013). As landslides, floods and torrents are expected to affect the transport infrastructure
41
and network the most projects to adapt to climate change affects need to start with
rehabilitation and construction of riverbanks and dyke protection systems. High temperatures
degrade infrastructures and need to be combated as well (Ministry of Environment and
Climate Change, 2013).
5.2.6 Climate Adaptation and Policies in Bulgaria
Currently, measures for climate change adaptation for the transport sector have not been
developed to a wider extent. Few examples addressing specific measures are identified and
the capacity to adapt to climate change is predicted to be low. The reason behind this is the
gap of understanding highlighted by the government and the level of awareness of what
climate change adaptation means. Therefore, raising awareness and knowledge within the
sector to create a systematic approach and understand climate change adaptation importance
(Council of Ministers the National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy, 2019). As Bulgaria
has a lower financial capacity, the European Commision created a partnership to fund
necessary improvements including transport infrastructure (European Commision, 2022).
5.2.7 Climate Adaptation and Policies in Hungary
Findings on policies and measures for adaptation in Bulgaria are mostly referring to social
policies and concrete action plans for coping with extreme climate conditions on IWT are
relatively low. Hungary has a national adaptation strategy where one direction of action is
identified. They want to examine the water transport conditions including IWT from a
climate change perspective (Innovációs és Technológiai Minisztérium, 2018). Since this is in
the planning phase it can be perceived as Hungary is slower in the process of adaptation
measures for extreme weather on IWT. Furthermore, systematic databases assessing climate
change impact in Hungary have not been perceived as reliable. Therefore, an EEA funded
project has been developed where a database called NAGIS will help with assessing existing
and future climate change vulnerabilities, impacts and possibilities to adapt (EEA Grants,
2015).
5.3 The resilience capabilities of the inland waterway transportation actors
This section will consist of the findings from the semi-structured interviews with inland barge
companies and ports and help answer the research question regarding what actions are inland
waterway transportation industry actors taking to prepare for, respond to, and recover from
climate and extreme weather disruptions? The section will be divided in three parts,
absorptive capabilities, adaptive capabilities and restorative capabilities in accordance with
the theoretical framework.
5.3.1 Absorptive capabilities
Inland barge companies and terminals are mainly described to be affected by climate change
in terms of changing water levels, especially low water levels and thus experience and
knowledge about the hydromorphology of the water has been important. However, a
42
representative from Port of Antwerp Bruges states that changing water levels in extreme
conditions are not of concern since the port is closer to the sea and locks within the port
controls the water levels. This is not the case for the inland port in Duisburg where they
experience more frequent high and low water levels.
In terms of anticipation, the authors have identified early warning signs amongst respondents
to anticipate potential disruptions. The findings show that the respondents have extensive
knowledge of the river's behaviour, gained from working with it every day. They explained
that falling water levels can be easily anticipated, as they only have to wait for the water to
reach the next point. While there may be differences in weather types due to side rivers
flowing into the main river, they are familiar with how the river reacts to these changes. One
inland barge company adds that in times of heavy rainfall “which causes that at a certain
point, we have a little bit more water than at another point…we know how the river is
reacting to it.” (Managing Director, inland barge company). Similarly, one barge company
situated in the Netherlands mentioned that they need to adapt to the changing water levels,
especially at their terminals, as their barges are in container transport and do not require a
certain depth, in contrast to bulk transport. They face more problems with depth during a few
weeks per year when water levels are low. They also noted that some parts of the Netherlands
are under sea levels which makes them aware of the impact of water levels on their
operations. The interview from another inland barge company explained that they have
extensive knowledge of the river's behaviour and can anticipate water level changes. They
mainly face two problems - too much water or too little water - which are becoming more
frequent over longer periods. High water does not interrupt their operations as much,
however it poses a threat to their company. One respondent states that they can anticipate
through early signals on waterways because the,
“Upper part of the river the problems arise, and it takes a few days before it comes to us.”
(Inland barge company, respondent 3).
Furthermore the inland barge companies can anticipate these changes, as they monitor water
levels at several waypoints, and can adjust their operational plans accordingly. The authors
had identified forecasting as a tool being critical in anticipating potential disruptions. The
respondents agreed as it enables them to plan and adapt to their transportation routes and
schedules accordingly. For instance, the inland barge company Contargo Waterways sources
their forecasting information from the government, which is provided through various
channels such as water labs and government agencies. One such agency is ELWIS.de, a
German website that provides information on water levels and waterways in Germany.
Rijkswaterstaat, a Dutch government agency, also provides water level predictions to
companies such as all the respondents. This information includes data on water flow and
speed of flow at specific points along the rivers. Additionally, ports can access long-term
statistical data on water levels from government websites. Information on water levels is
obtained through water level metres, which are installed at various points along the rivers.
The data from these metres is transmitted electronically to companies, enabling them to stay
up-to-date on the latest water level information. This information is critical for companies
43
and ports operations, as it allows them to predict the conditions of the water. While
electronic charts enable companies to plot the depths of the rivers and identify the deepest
parts of the river, this information is not sufficient for one of the respondents to change routes
as they only still have to travel on the same route and merely have to only adapt.
Preparedness is another key aspect of anticipation, encompassing the ability to respond to
unexpected events and reduce potential impacts. The respondents expressed the uncertainty
surrounding climate change events and to the extent which it has impacted weather
conditions. In asking a Dutch inland barge company if they experienced more frequent port
closures of Maeslantkering storm surge barrier because of extreme weather, they mentioned
that such extreme weather conditions occur, however, unsure of how much this is due to
climate change. The respondent adds,
“Indicently, I don’t think it has anything to do with climate change. We live in a country that
is close to the sea, some occasion there is storm, it won’t be different in countries you live”
(Inland barge company, Van Berkel Logistics)
Despite uncertainty on the extent of climate change impact, respondents acknowledged the
need to prepare for dry periods and diminishing glaciers. In terms of contingency planning,
respondents discussed the need to adapt vessels to navigate in low water levels. One
suggested approach was to focus on constructing inland barges specifically designed for
improved manoeuvrability in lower waters. However, it is important to consider that the
longevity of barges poses a challenge, as implementing contingency measures for low water
levels may be a time-consuming process. A representative from Contargo Waterways, an
inland barge company, explained, "Building new ships takes time due to the long lifespan of
barges.” In the context of contingency planning, the financial implications associated with
building new barges emerged as a potential barrier. Respondents highlighted that this
undertaking is characterised by both a prolonged timeline and substantial financial
investment. Notably, an inland barge company representative stated, "To build a new freight
barge, which is able to sail the Rhine, you have to talk about somewhere between, depending
on the size, six to ten million euros for one barge." Despite these challenges, the companies
are actively exploring strategies in adjusting their vessels to changing water levels. In terms
of ports, efforts are put into managing dykes and locks in order to make sure that the
infrastructure can handle the rising water levels (Port of Antwerp, 2023). .
In terms of business continuity planning, the use of alternative modes of transport and
collaboration has become a consideration when facing disruptions. The inland barge company
Contargo Waterways which also operates rail services, sees the advantage of rail is that it is
not dependent on water levels, which can fluctuate and cause disruptions to IWT. Therefore,
the respondents are actively seeking to expand their rail connections to ensure the continuity
of their business operations. For instance, they aim to establish rail connections between the
Mannheim or Karlsruhe regions in southern Germany and closer seaports, such as Duisburg
or Emory. By using rail to connect these two points, they can pick up containers and transport
them by barge in the direction of the seaport, thereby reducing the impact of low water levels
44
on their operations. Another inland barge company, also owns trucks and uses intermodality
in their operations to enable seamless transportation. Moreover, companies are collaborating
with other businesses in Germany and the Netherlands to ensure their business continuity
plans are effective. One approach has been to share barges with other companies for certain
destinations.
Despite these efforts, businesses still encounter difficulties in maintaining their continuity
plans, particularly in terms of their absorptive capabilities. This challenge arises primarily
from extreme weather events and a lack of government intervention. An inland barge
company, based in the Netherlands, highlights that the water management system has not
successfully maintained adequate water levels during periods of drought. Consequently, this
situation has profound implications for businesses reliant on inland waterways for
transportation and raises concerns regarding the long-term sustainability of business
continuity plans within the region. Echoing these concerns, a managing director from Van
Berkel Logistics stated that in recent years, they have experienced numerous periods of
drought, which have not only adversely affected the environment but have also revealed
shortcomings in managing water levels, particularly in the sandy regions of the Netherlands.
The respondents believe that insufficient maintenance of water levels by the government
contributes to the perception of climate change as a significant factor. The responsibility
primarily lies with the government's ineffective water management practices. The respondent
adds,
“The thought is that there is a climate change but it mainly has to do with the government not
managing the water levels.”
(inland barge company, Van Berkel Logistics)
Concerns have been raised by the inland barge company Van Berkel Logistics regarding the
government contracting divisions for water management on waterways. The director
emphasises that these government contractors are reactive rather than proactive, addressing
maintenance issues only when they arise instead of predicting and taking preventive
measures. This lack of anticipation can hinder the resilience of the IWT sector, as potential
problems may not be identified and mitigated in a timely manner. The director argues for a
proactive approach by the government, where they predict and act on potential issues.
However, the current reliance on private actors for maintenance results in knowledge
spillage, reducing the government's understanding of waterway management. Retaining
knowledge within organisations, as advocated by the director, can enhance anticipation
capabilities and contribute to the overall resilience of the IWT sector.
Furthermore, a representative from the European Federation of Inland Port expresses the need
for a comprehensive solution with a clear plan to address the effects of climate change,
particularly regarding more frequent low water levels along the waterways. He emphasises
the importance of adapting the solutions to the specific hydromorphological characteristics of
each river. The respondent adds the current lack of direction and a unified plan at the national
and European levels, specifically mentioning the Rhine plan adaptation for low water levels.
45
In addition, the respondent expresses the need for governments to take a closer look at
individual rivers and develop separate plans that consider the unique challenges and
requirements of each location.
From the interviews, the authors identified the importance of customer management as part of
collaboration capability in the face of water level fluctuations. One respondent expressed how
they rely on two planners and freighters to plan their IWT. However they are also strong in
their customer relations. They prioritise providing their customers with the latest and most
accurate information, and work collaboratively with them to determine the best course of
action in light of water level changes. However, the company ultimately must adapt to the
situation at hand, and cannot control water levels. In some cases, they may need to urge their
customers to hurry up with loading in order to take advantage of favourable water levels. The
company is well-equipped to discuss these situations with their clients and make them aware
of the potential impact on their cargo. It is worth noting that the impact of this situation is not
significant, in which one inland barge company adds;
“That happens two to three weeks a year…it does not happen that often and the impact is
less. It is about 10-20 percent less cargo. It is not that significant, is what I want to say.”
(Respondent 3, inland barge company)
Another factor part of collaboration capabilities identified was communications, which plays
a role in coordinating efforts between different stakeholders, such as companies,
governments, and unions. The interviews with representatives of two inland barge companies
indicated that these companies actively collaborate with governments and other organisations
to address the challenges facing the IWT sector. This collaboration includes discussions on
waterways and water management, as well as efforts to advocate for policy changes that
would enable the use of larger barges in smaller canals. One of the respondents identifies
using vessels with increased width as a way to adapt their vessels to lower water levels
without losing capacity. The Managing Directors explains;
“...We also discuss the possibilities to sail with bigger ships, especially for companies who
are in the same ports as we are but they are also taking their goods from the higher parts of
the river Rhine. They often have periods where the water is lower, and in that case they might
need bigger ships, broader, longer and with less depth which can still take the same amount
of goods, but they want them a bit broader than they are allowed now. This is where we are
fighting with our government to make use of those vessels in smaller canals.”
(Managing Director, Van Berkel Logistics)
The importance of government action was emphasised by the representative from Contargo
Waterways as well, who noted that while companies can adapt to changing water levels to
some extent, ultimately it is the government that has the authority and responsibility to
manage water resources. The role of communication in this context is to ensure that all
stakeholders are informed of the latest developments and can work together to address
challenges as they arise. Ports representatives moreover feel there need to be more policies
46
regarding these issues, especially changing water levels, and that the current policies are
insufficient.
Postponement of orders is another factor that is related to collaboration capability in IWT and
was identified. The respondents revealed that in situations where the water level is not
sufficient to transport the ordered goods, they communicate and collaborate with their clients
and find a way to postpone the delivery until the water level rises. As mentioned by one
inland barge company, they transport the goods a bit later, which indicates the willingness to
collaborate with their clients and adapt to the changing situation. Similarly, another inland
barge company stated that they adjust the quantity of goods according to the water level,
which also highlights their flexibility in responding to the situation. However, both
interviewees acknowledged that it is difficult to anticipate these situations since they are
dependent on weather conditions.
In terms of resilience capability referring to organisation, the structure of many companies in
the IWT industry is characterised by a prevalence of family companies. For instance, the
company Van Berkel Logistics which started in 2005 is a family company that operates three
inland container terminals. Additionally, according to another respondent, the majority of
inland shipping is done by what are known as "captain owners," who own their own barges
and sail on them with their families;
“That is 70 percent of the fleet in western Europe. So 70 percent is not owned by shipping
companies, but by the barge owners. And for these people, it's even more difficult to invest
amounts of six, seven, eight, ten Millions. So it will be I think it will be a rather long process
to build all new barges, which are better able to cope with low water.”
(Managing director, Contargo Waterways)
Investing in new, more advanced barges that are better able to cope with low water can be a
significant financial challenge for these small family-owned businesses, as it can require
investments of millions of euros.
Visibility emerged as a critical resilience capability for inland barge companies. The
interviews revealed that companies were actively investing in research to gather business
intelligence. In addition, information exchange was recognised as a vital element of resilience
in the IWT industry. Respondents acknowledged the challenges posed by the dynamic nature
of the industry, including fluctuating water levels, weather conditions, and cargo availability,
making long-term planning difficult. Hence, timely and accurate information exchange
among stakeholders is crucial for ensuring efficient and effective transport operations.
Effective information exchange can be facilitated through various channels, such as digital
platforms, email, and phone calls. For instance, respondents utilise digital platforms to
monitor water levels, access weather forecasts, and stay updated on cargo availability. This
information can then be shared with relevant parties, including shippers, barge owners, and
terminal operators, enabling them to make well-informed decisions regarding transport
operations. Moreover, information exchange fosters collaboration among stakeholders. In the
47
event of low water levels on a particular route, a barge owner can notify other barge owners
and shippers, allowing them to plan alternative routes or adjust cargo quantities to ensure the
smooth continuation of transport operations.
5.3.2 Adaptive capabilities
Capacity adjustments during disruptions were found to be crucial for inland barge companies.
During periods of low water, these companies adapt their capacity by leaving behind one
layer of containers or reducing tonnage capacity. This adaptive approach extends to high
winds as well, where a layer of containers is also left behind to align with weather conditions.
As the inland barge company Van Berkel Logistics states, it is a matter of adapting to the
prevailing weather conditions. The impact of low capacity on inland barge companies and
ports was highlighted in the responses. More goods get stuck in ports or fail to reach them,
affecting the operations of terminal managers. The director of the European Federation of
Inland Ports (EFIP) expressed concern over this issue. During low water conditions, vessel
capacity is reduced to 10 percent or less, making it economically viable and prompting a shift
to road transport. This, in turn, disrupts the flow of goods through ports and hampers terminal
operations (European Federation of Inland Ports, 2023). The limited capacity of IWT and the
inability of other modes such as rail and road to compensate during low water conditions
were also emphasised by Contargo Waterways. The managing director of Contargo
Waterways stated that the volume of goods transported by barge surpasses the capacity
available in alternative transport modes. Consequently, the market's options for transporting
goods during low water conditions are restricted.
In terms of adaptation, the interviewed respondents demonstrated adaptive capabilities.
Swiftly adjusting to unforeseen disruptions in transportation routes is essential for business
continuity and customer satisfaction. Inland barge companies emphasised the importance of
having more alternatives available to improve fast rerouting and adaptability. This includes
expanding rail connections and employing barges better equipped to handle low water
conditions. Furthermore, respondents stressed the complementary nature of different
transportation modes. Rather than being competitors, rail and waterway transportation can be
utilised together, taking advantage of their respective strengths. The faster nature of rail
transportation can be combined with the higher capacity of waterway transportation. Having
backup plans in place, such as using trucks for domestic and urgent transport to sea ports, was
also highlighted as a strategy for fast re-routing. In case of unexpected disruptions,
companies must be prepared to adapt quickly and find alternative solutions. This may involve
using smaller barges or alternative companies to transport goods when larger barges are
unable to enter certain ports due to lock closures or other factors. The representative from
Port of DuisPort echoed the need for deepening the river Rhine in order to allow larger
vessels to pass through. Furthermore, adds that the need to build more optimised vessels and
that would increase the resilience of IWT (Port of DuisPort, 2023).
The development of alternative technologies emerged as a factor for enhancing adaptability.
48
Respondents mentioned the use of smaller screws, reduced draft, and lightweight
constructions to extend barge sailing time during low water periods (Contargo Waterways,
Inland barge company). These technological advancements have the potential to enhance the
adaptive capabilities of IWT in the face of extreme weather events and climate change
impacts. However, a significant challenge hindering the adaptability and resilience of IWT
systems in Western Europe is the lack of infrastructure and its maintenance, according to all
inland barge companies.This issue affects various aspects, including locks, bridges, and
overall infrastructure. The lack of infrastructure maintenance results in disruptions and
significant costs for inland barge companies for inland barge companies such as Contargo
Waterways and Van Berkel Logistics. Managing customer expectations and handling delays
caused by maintenance-related disruptions become crucial in such circumstances.
Representative from Contargo Waterways noted that,
"...most countries in western Europe have a deficit, when it comes to infrastructure, and the
maintenance of infrastructure as a whole. Especially in Germany. But also in the Netherlands, in
Belgium and France. And inland waterways is a part of it, the infrastructure is not up to speed, I
would say. It's a problem. And it concerns a lot of things, locks, bridges, and whatever."
(Managing Director, Contargo Waterways)
In terms of flexibility in order fulfilment, the limitations of alternative distribution channels as
an adaptive capability were discussed during the interviews. Respondents explained that the
volume of goods they transport by barge does not match the available capacity of other
transport modes like rail or road. Consequently, their ability to switch transport modes is
limited when disruptions occur on waterways. While exploring alternative modes of transport
is possible, it is not a practical or scalable solution given their current transportation volume.
However, some respondents mentioned that they do have their own trucks for domestic and
urgent transport, especially for export goods that require adherence to specific sailing
schedules for deep sea vessels. For instance, one inland barge company stated that they utilise
their own trucks for urgent demands or when the volume exceeds the capacity of barge
transportation.
Representative from the organisation European Federation of Inland Port acknowledges the
possibility of utilising alternative transportation modes during disruptions as an adaptation
measure to ensure the fulfilment of customer orders. However, the respondent emphasises
that this approach is not considered an ideal long-term solution. While it may temporarily
address the immediate issue of delivering goods to customers, EFIP expresses concerns
regarding the future viability of the IWT industry if the weather related conditions continue to
disrupt operations.
Moreover, one capability that emerged from the interviews is the ability to cope with delays
caused by weather conditions. Respondents acknowledged that climate change has led to
more extreme weather conditions, such as high water levels and fog, resulting in
transportation delays. The representative from Port of Antwerp-Bruges mentioned how water
management activities by the government such as water pumping and occupying locks, can
49
contribute to delays on the waterways. One respondent highlighted the impact of fog on
operational activities at the port of Rotterdam. However, respondents also emphasised their
flexibility in finding alternative solutions, such as adjusting transportation schedules or
delaying shipments. They noted that delays caused by high water or storms are typically
short-term, lasting only a few days. Furthermore, they mentioned their ability to anticipate
and plan for these weather conditions by either scheduling transportation in advance or
seeking safe locations to wait until conditions improve. In cases of lower water levels, which
may lead to longer delays, respondents stated their capability to find alternative solutions.
In terms of dispersion, the importance of distributed decision-making in response to extreme
weather events that disrupt waterway transportation was emphasised by the respondents
during the interviews. An inland barge company explained that decisions regarding such
disruptions are primarily made at their headquarters in Veghel, where they have experience in
dealing with low water levels on the Rhine and Main rivers. In contrast, their office in
Antwerp, located near the border and around the port, lacks the same level of experience in
handling such disruptions. The Managing Director acknowledged that while their Antwerp
colleagues are aware of the problem of low water levels through communication with their
experienced counterparts, they lack first-hand experience in dealing with it. This discrepancy
in experience can be attributed to the limited local-specific empowerment of the Antwerp
office compared to their colleagues near the Rhine and Main rivers.
Moreover, respondents emphasised the importance of local and immediate decision-making
to adapt to disruptions in waterway transportation. For instance, when faced with low water
levels, decisions regarding cargo loading onto barges are made on-site by personnel based on
the current water level. One respondent mentioned that their personnel make decisions at the
moment they need to be taken. This decision-making process requires promptness and
accuracy to ensure the safe and efficient loading of barges. Furthermore, the respondents
highlighted the significance of having experienced and knowledgeable personnel present at
each location to make such decisions. Water levels and other conditions can vary significantly
from one location to another, even within the same river system. As the respondents pointed
out, their Antwerp office operates primarily in and around the port, and thus may not possess
the same level of experience in dealing with low water levels as their counterparts managing
terminals near the Rhine and Main rivers.
In terms of efficiency, inland barge companies employed three key approaches to maintain
efficiency in their operations:
● Reduction of cargo capacity volumes through delayed commitments and disruptions:
In response to disruptions and uncertainties, barge companies strategically reduced
their cargo capacity volumes. This involved delaying commitments and adjusting
cargo quantities based on prevailing conditions. By flexibly managing their cargo
loadings, they aimed to optimise their operations and adapt to changing
circumstances.
50
● Reduction of transportation time through the use of smaller vessels or collaborating
with other companies: Barge companies sought to minimise transportation time by
employing smaller vessels or collaborating with other companies. By utilising smaller
vessels that are better suited to navigate in specific conditions, such as low water
levels or restricted access to certain ports, they aimed to maintain efficient transport
operations. Collaborating with other companies allowed them to pool resources and
expertise, enabling them to overcome challenges more effectively.
● Addressing the decrease in customer demand and adaptation measures with
government and unions: In response to decreased customer demand, barge companies
engaged in proactive measures and discussions with government entities and unions.
This collaborative approach aimed to address the impact of disruptions on customer
demand and explore potential adaptations in the industry. By working together with
relevant stakeholders, they aimed to find viable solutions and mitigate the effects of
decreased demand on their operations.
During extreme weather disruptions, both ports and inland terminals take measures to ensure
the safety and security of their workers and prevent any unnecessary risks which adds to their
resilience capabilities during disruptions. Respondents mention that terminals in ports and
inland locations halt all operations when weather conditions, such as high wind speeds, pose
a danger. Inland vessels also seek safe places, such as inland ports, to wait until conditions
approve before continuing their journey. Furthermore, the risk of theft is generally low in
both seaport and inland terminals, as they are not open to the public and cannot be freely
entered. In the case of containers, a valid release order is required before they can be picked
up, which is not openly communicated. Moreover, cybercrime remains a concern in their
IWT industry, as it may involve attempts to obtain a release order, but it is not directly related
to weather conditions.
In terms of market position part of resilience capabilities, inland barge companies are aware
that their clients may not always be satisfied when operations are halted due to adverse
weather conditions. However, they prioritise the safety of their workers and cargo over
customer satisfaction. One respondent highlighted the impact of fog on operations, stating
that it can lead to a two or three days halt in port operations, preventing the return of barges
to terminals and the pickup or delivery of goods.
Despite these disruptions, the companies strive to manage their customer relationships by
providing accurate and timely information about weather-related disruptions. They maintain
strong customer relations and communicate updates on weather conditions and potential
delays. Notably, some major customers heavily rely on inland barge transport, transporting
thousands of containers annually. While a delay of a few containers may have minimal
impact on their operations, other customers may face financial losses and strained
relationships. Hence, maintaining open communication channels and managing customer
expectations during extreme weather disruptions are crucial for building and preserving
customer trust and loyalty. However, there is a risk of losing customers due to the inability to
51
sail during such disruptions. Inland barge companies acknowledge that delays caused by
weather conditions may lead to customer dissatisfaction. Although they make efforts to
inform customers and explore alternative solutions, persistent delays could prompt customers
to seek other transportation options such as trucks, pipelines, or trains. This poses a medium
to long-term threat to customer loyalty and retention, affecting not only individual companies
but the entire barging industry. One respondent expressed concerns about the potential
damage to the industry if customers shift to alternative transportation modes. Such a shift in
customer preferences could have a lasting impact on customer loyalty and retention, as well
as the market position of the inland waterway transportation industry as a whole. Therefore, it
is crucial for inland barge companies to address customer concerns, maintain reliability, and
demonstrate the effectiveness of barging as a transportation option to sustain their market
position and resilience capability.
5.3.3 Restorative capabilities
Regarding the recovery process, the length of disruptions in inland waterway transportation
caused by extreme weather conditions varies depending on the type of weather event. High
water disruptions tend to be relatively short, lasting from a few days to a couple of weeks,
depending on the severity of the conditions. In contrast, low water periods pose a different
challenge. These disruptions can be unpredictable and persist for several weeks, months, or
even longer. The duration of recovery is influenced by factors such as the condition of
infrastructure, the availability of alternative transportation options, and the ability to manage
and adapt to water levels. Factors like river depth, maintenance of navigation channels, and
the capacity to dredge or control water levels can affect the time needed for recovery.
Additionally, the efficiency and accessibility of alternative modes of transportation, such as
rail or road, also play a role in determining how quickly the system can return to normal.
In terms of financial strength, the respondents, who are the inland barge companies,
acknowledge that disruptions caused by especially high or low water periods can have both
short-term and long-term invisible costs. They highlight that during low water periods, the
prices tend to increase as a reaction to the decreased cargo volumes. In order to compensate
for transporting less cargo, the companies opt to raise their prices and sail more frequently.
This strategic approach allows them to maximise their profits despite the disruptions.
However, the long-term financial impacts of such transportation disruptions are not directly
addressed. It is evident that the financial risks associated with high or low water periods can
affect not only the inland barge companies themselves but also the entire logistics chain,
impacting the timely transportation of goods and potentially influencing the overall financial
stability of the companies involved in the IWT industry. Customers can as a response choose
to transport their goods using other modes other than IWT.
Additionally, the respondents note that disruptions caused by ice are rare and generally
managed through agreements where they receive extra payment for sailing at slower speeds.
They also mention that insurance coverage involves a set amount of payment required for
having the vessel present, and taking more cargo increases efficiency and profits. However,
52
the initial payment must account for low water levels when less cargo can be transported. The
respondents also acknowledge the potential impact of unpredictable delays in loading and
unloading facilities on efficiency and costs, but they emphasise that their larger customers
generally take good care of them, mitigating any significant financial repercussions.
53
6. DISCUSSION
This chapter contains a discussion based on the previous chapter to provide a new perspective
including the authors own perspective and highlight the most valuable aspects to answer the reports
research questions. Moreover, this section is presented in the same way as before to provide a
structure to easier understand and follow the results of the report.
6.1 Climate policies for adaptation and barriers
In the results and analysis section, the authors divided the found policies according to the
categorisation framework and analysed the findings from countries with the highest inland
waterway freight transport in the EU. Finding the policy measures that in particular focused
on alleviating the climate change and extreme weather impact on IWT was in general
difficult when looking more narrowly into nation-specific policies as well as due to their
geographical locations. Findings show that there is less priority and steps being taken in
eastern European countries in developing policies regarding this issue from the information
gathered and therefore much less information being available. In addition, a significant effort
was put on translating documents and websites. Some countries were in the beginning stages
of responding to this issue, and such countries had as a response more social related policies
in terms of gathering research data about the extreme weather impacts in their area. When
examining the existing policies and measures, there were less specific policies prioritising
IWT and the effects from climate change and extreme weather. Such policies and measures
mainly related to water management policies or sustainable transport policies.
Regarding countries' measures and policies, the analysis shows that the majority of measures
regarding IWT fell into physical policies, which aim at transforming the physical and
institutional structures, including maintenance and infrastructure. The second category was
institutional and the third being social. Government entities mainly focused on implementing
policies that had mainly to do with water management on the rivers and canals in which
inland barges travel. These measures included dredging, water pumping and maintaining
water levels. Furthermore, these practices have shown to be necessary for enabling stable
navigability on the waterways for inland barge companies as well as for their cargo capacity
not to be compromised and reduced. On the other hand, the measures have also proven to be
necessary for the protection of infrastructure and nature alongside the waterways from
flooding and erosion. The country's measures have been performed by government agencies
that are responsible for water management such as Rikjswaterstaat in the Netherlands and it is
worth mentioning that many of these measures have been implemented for a long time and
are not newly developed measures. However, findings both from policies and interviews
shows a relatively new strategy for retaining water levels and being referred to as a sponge
tactic, where water is being held back in retention basins and later pumped out in times of
low water levels. Before countries focused on letting water flow out of canals and rivers to
avoid flooding, however, the government policies show that countries now focus on keeping
the water in to handle recurring drought periods and low water levels. In regards to the
interviews, it was found that most of the challenges related to climate change and extreme
54
weather related to changing water levels, more specifically low water levels. This can be seen
as a good alignment between prioritisation of policy measures and the biggest type of
challenge faced by inland barge companies.
The respondents have also expressed the cruciality of the government maintaining
waterways. However, in terms of their perspective on their experiences with low water levels,
respondents also described a lack of proper maintenance on waterways and infrastructure
being an adding factor to the extent in which barge companies and ports may experience
extreme weather disruptions. For instance, several respondents expressed the measures ability
to stabilise water levels but that governments are acting late in taking measures which leads
to effects of low water levels not being mediated for a longer duration. Also this was also
highlighted when in the interview with a representative from Port of Duisburg where he
mentioned a lack of water management from government authorities on the river Elbe. The
respondents also mentioned being affected by other extreme weather conditions, however,
they are undecided in knowing what could be the consequence of climate change or whether
they are “normal '' extreme weather conditions. Even in terms of frequency of extreme
weather conditions, some respondents have had over 20 years experience in the IWT industry
and mentions that periods of extreme weather always existed. This highlights the uncertainty
of the effects climate change and extreme weather has on the IWT industry and could be
contributing to the lack of focus on measures to cope with this issue. It also highlights the fact
that more research is needed in this area. Similarities can be found in the literature review
which also shows the unclarity in the effects of climate change and extreme weather on IWT.
For instance, Schweighofer (2014) study on climate change and extreme weather events
concluded that there are still uncertainties in the extent of impact on IWT (Schweighofer,
2014).
Through the findings, the authors found that this could have long term effects on the IWT
industry. A lack of focus and repetitive inertia in physical maintenance over transport
infrastructure and waterways, might have small negative effects in the short term but can lead
to significant long term effects in maintaining the competitiveness of IWT transportation.
This is highlighted by the respondent from EFIP which refers to the risk of silo structures
being developed at the policy making level. Therefore this issue of climate change and
extreme weather disruptions on IWT has shown to be an elevating issue that needs to be
addressed.
In this discussion, it is important to bring up the context of IWT in Europe to understand the
external elements that play a role in the conclusions of this paper. It is worthy to note the
small percentage of modal split using IWT compared to other transport modes, which can
affect and explain why governments are not focusing on the issues pertaining to IWT. Adding
to this, IWT is also part of a niche market in which countries who have access to inland
waterways are more concerned than other entities. Therefore in higher governance levels, the
issues of IWT can only be properly raised by the parties which have an important IWT
market and industry. In addition, from the findings the authors have concluded that the effects
from climate change and extreme weather are rather limited at the moment and the
55
experiences from extreme weather conditions, besides low water levels, are said to last a
small duration, from a few hours to a couple weeks in a year. These factors can all contribute
to why the public measures and policies are having less focus and investments in this issue
and potentially lead to a risk of reducing the competitiveness of IWT. However, the
importance of IWT through its economical benefits to Europe's international trade market and
boosting of national economies exist and is currently being promoted by EU as an
competitive transport mode for future sustainable transportation.
The governments are in some regard seen as having a reactive approach to periods of low
water levels instead of a proactive one. This can especially be highlighted as a potential
macro-level issue since rivers are connected to different countries and in order for them to be
managed well, a rather active collaboration needs to be in place between different
government entities, which could be up to several countries on the European rivers and
canals. Through the findings, the authors believe that the institutional policies can be better
implemented through better collaboration. This is to avoid silo structures in developing
measures and keeping them effective in implementation. Moreover, it has also been identified
that there could be a vital knowledge slippage when implementing physical policies and that
concerned the government entities contracting water management practices to external
providers. In doing this, government entities are losing important experience and present
knowledge that could help them in coping with extreme weather conditions on waterways. It
is shown from the respondents, that there is a lack of understanding from government entities
of impacts and that this could be avoided if the government were more engaged in
implementing measures.
6.2 Inland barge companies resilience during climate related disruptions
Through a framework of resilience capabilities factors, the authors have been able to
understand the effects and actions by inland barge companies and ports in times before,
during and after a disruption. The authors have analysed the interview through their own
categorisation of absorptive capabilities, in terms of the capabilities that are relevant before
any extreme weather disruption happens. Also, adaptive capabilities which pertain to
capabilities necessary in handling ongoing disruptions. Lastly, restorative capabilities which
are important aspects of recovering from such disruptions.
In the case of absorptive capabilities which refers to the capabilities of before a disruption
happens, the authors have been able to identify sub-factors relating anticipation,
collaboration, organisation and visibility. The study suggests that inland barge companies and
terminals are more aware and concerned about climate change effects on water levels rather
than other extreme weather conditions. Even though fog has been mentioned as a troubling
disruptor to IWT operations, the respondents don’t relate this to being because of climate
change impacts, rather normal extreme weather conditions. In order to prepare for
disruptions, actors make use of information systems on water levels and weather forecasting
in their day-to-day operations to anticipate the effects of changing water levels and other
56
weather conditions such as storms, wind and fog etc. Moreover, the IWT industry actors are
much aware of the conditions and characteristics of waterways and can gain early warning
signals from knowing about certain points of low water levels and their development along
the rivers and canals. This helps them prepare and helps them set up contingency plans in
case such disruptions events might appear. The IWT industry appears to have a strong
collaborating capacity, in which they are in communication with several stakeholders and
partners in the industry such as government and other IWT companies. These collaborations
are mainly built on creating good relationships for maintaining continuous operational
capacities. There are challenges being faced for maintaining strong absorptive capabilities, in
terms of lack of proper infrastructure for IWT and water level maintenance, however, the
respondents showed how they are raising these issues with government entities when
possible. The study suggests that the external environment is important to consider in this
phase in which the relevant infrastructure is in place as well as access to information and
forecasting technology.
In terms of adaptive capabilities which is defined as the capabilities to adapt during a
disruption, the IWT industry has shown to be adaptive through use of different strategies and
knowledge capacities within their organisations as well as using resources. Most inland barge
companies are a smaller family company and are usually allowed for faster decision-making
and teamwork in adaptive measures taken. However, there are limitations that could affect for
instance investing in alternative technologies of adapting vessels to current water level issues.
Inland barge companies are also working to strengthen their capabilities by developing barges
that are better in being navigable during low water periods. For instance, one of the
respondents mentioned communications with government in IWT actors wanting to use wider
and broader vessels in order to navigate during periods of droughts and low water levels.
In terms of inland barge companies and in the case of present disruptions on waterway
operations, they sometimes have possibilities in being flexible in their order fulfillments
through the use of other transport modes. Some of the respondents run a multimodal
company in terms of adding trucks or rail to their services. This helps strengthen the
capabilities for companies in adapting to situations when disruptions exist. However, this
adaptation measure presents a dichotomy, with potential benefits on one side and potential
drawbacks on the other hand. On one hand, these capabilities enable them to fulfil their
commitments to customers and remain profitable. However, on the other hand, the measures
taken to adapt to disruptions can lead to cascading effects within the industry. For example,
customers may choose to switch to other modes of transport, which can have long-term
impacts on the industry. This, in turn, may influence potential customers to locate their
facilities or plants in areas with better road or rail connections, further contributing to the
cascading effects. As such, it is important for IWT companies to carefully consider the
potential impacts of their adaptive measures on the industry as a whole when seeking to
maintain business continuity.
57
In terms of restorative capabilities which refers to the way inland barge companies and ports
recover from disruptions, the companies seem to be able to recover from the disruption as
soon as the extreme weather condition disappears. The time of the recovery is what is varying
between extreme weather conditions, as where fog and storms might appear for some hours,
high water levels durates for a couple days in general and low water levels can appear for
weeks until a couple of months depending on the situation. The financial strain is recognised
by respondents, however, the IWT companies adjust their prices in times of low water levels
based on their limited cargo capacity and demand. This helps companies in minimising the
financial impacts from such climate change and extreme weather disruptions.
58
7. CONCLUSION AND FINAL REMARKS
In this paper the authors have examined the climate change and extreme weather impact on the IWT
industry and gained understanding about the perspective and experiences from IWT actors such as
inland barge companies, inland ports, ports and an organisation in the industry. In this section you
will find the concluding remarks relating to the main research question, as well as recommendation
for further research.
This thesis aimed at exploring the existing policies and measures that addressed climate
change and extreme weather impact on IWT in the EU and examining how IWT industry
actors, particularly in western Europe, cope with above mentioned disruptions. A resilience
capability framework was applied to analyse how inland barge companies have absorptive,
adaptive and restorative capabilities. Furthermore, a categorisation framework was used to
analyse the type of adaptation policies that existed to support and promote IWT in Europe.
Findings showed that inland barge companies have capabilities to prepare for disruptions,
mainly through information systems and experienced people in the organisation. Challenges
in adapting to climate change and extreme weather are highlighted to mainly be due to lack of
maintenance on waterway infrastructure as well as the limitations on vessels. IWT actors'
restorative capabilities are strong due to their increasing price when they experience cargo
restrictions during disruptions. However, there are concerns raised regarding the long term
implications on the IWT industry and risks for IWT customers to prefer other modes of
transport when disruptions continue to persist. In terms of policies, there is support and
promotion of IWT in times of climate related disruptions, however, these focus varies
depending on countries. At the EU level, there are more mitigation policies than adaptation
policies and the existing adaptation policies are related to institutional policies. For countries,
there are mostly adaptation policies than mitigation policies, and the adaptation focus mainly
concerns physical policies.
This study highlights how the IWT industry copes with challenges posed by climate change
and extreme weather disruption and what policies that exist to support the resilience of IWT
actors. These disruptions are mainly in the form of changing water levels, in particular low
water levels. Although existing EU policies as well as national policy measures are designed
to address these issues, there is a lack of prioritisation on this topic from the view of IWT
industry actors. In the context of this, the reason could be for the small modal split of IWT
compared to other transports as well as the disruptions lasting more short-term. However, the
frequency of extreme weather conditions impacts are evidently increasing and the IWT
industry is facing issues which could have retroactive effects in promoting it as a sustainable
and competitive transportation mode for the future of EU transport networks. Adding to this,
EU policies such as the Ten-T policy emphasises and aims to build the highest infrastructure
quality standards for connecting major cities and nodes in the IWT network. In examining the
resilience capabilities of IWT actors, governments have been shown to play an important role
in alleviating the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events. In addition, the lack
of maintenance and implementation of policy measures can further increase the negative
effects experienced from such cascading effects and continue to affect the competitiveness of
59
the IWT industry. Measures should include a focus on building ways to preserve knowledge
within organisations in times of contracting external providers to engage water management
practices and improving cross-entity collaborations. Furthermore, it is recommended that
additional research be conducted to better comprehend the impact of climate change on IWT
and to identify potential solutions to these challenges. While industry actors are taking some
measures to prepare for, respond to, and recover from these disruptions, there is still a need
for further research and engagement from the public perspective in order to strengthen the
industry's competitiveness.
In terms of IWT industry actors, ports and inland barge companies are mainly affected by low
water levels, however, ports closer to the sea such as Port of Antwerp-Bruges experience less
disruptions. The absorptive capabilities consist of early warning signals which the IWT actors
have significant knowledge and experience on. An example is knowing that when a certain
part of the river experiences low water levels, that the same issues will affect further in the
river. Moreover, the increased use of newer information systems helps them anticipate
potential disruptions. Through collaboration with the government and competitors, they are
able to work on better solutions. In terms of adaptive capabilities, respondents are able to
adapt to extreme weather conditions through the use of intermodality and strong customer
relationships. This is of special importance since there are limitations in the adaptive
capacities. As described in the literature review, there are mostly no alternative waterway
routes such as in road transportation, hence, companies put effort in having strong
communications with customers to update on potential disruptions. The respondents also used
an additional mode of transport in their IWT services, making it possible to switch modes.
However, risk was identified that could affect the long term viability of IWT in Europe. In
terms of their restorative capabilities, the recovery duration varies depending on the type of
disruption. In terms of financial recovery, companies did not express special concern since
they increased prices to deal with the low transportation during such periods of disruption.
Further research is necessary to explore the challenges and opportunities confronting the IWT
industry in the context of climate change, including the effects of climate change on ÍWT
infrastructure, supply chains, and workforce dynamics. This thesis could be studied more
in-depth by examining the policies that exist in the cities levels of the countries mentioned in
this thesis. Furthermore, adding more respondents from eastern Europe could enrich the study
by adding a new perspective. Moreover, a continuation of this report could be on comparing
how these experiences and resilience capabilities are the same in other countries and along
other rivers. Valuable insights could be gained from the complexities in inland waterways and
other different places and compared to gain insights into potential new measures and
solutions. In addition, these findings can also relate to the absorptive, adaptive and restorative
capabilities of IWT industry actors and strengthen their resilience in times of climate change
and extreme weather disruptions, as well as their competitiveness in the transport network in
Europe.
60
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APPENDIX 1
Interview questions: Contargo Logistics BV, Van Berkel Logistics and Respondent 3,
inland barge company
General questions
1. Can you provide some background on your experience in inland water transportation/shipping?
2. How long have you been working in the industry?
3. What do you consider the most significant climate challenges in water management?
Climate change disruption and drivers
1. How aware are you of the potential impact of climate change on IWT?
2. Has your environment experienced any extreme weather events that have disrupted your
operations before?
a. If yes, what disruptions were more challenging?
3. Can you describe what kind of measures your organisation takes to prepare for such extreme
weather disruptions?
4. What do you see as the main challenges in adapting to extreme weather disruptions?
Policies and public measures
1. Are you aware of any public policies in your country that addresses the impacts of extreme
weather on IWT?
a. If yes, have you implemented any?
b. If yes again, do you think the policies and measures by the public is enough?
2. What kind of extreme-weather related challenges will be of more importance in the future?
3. What kind of assistance or support do you think would be helpful for shippers and companies in
the IWT industry, in adapting to climate change?
4. What kind of assistance or support do you think would be helpful for Rikjswaterstaat, in adapting
to climate change?
Conclusion
1. Do you have any last comments on this topic?
Interview questions: Port of Antwerp, Port of Dusiport
General questions
1. Can you provide some background on your experience in inland water transportation/shipping?
2. How long have you been working in the industry?
3. What do you consider the most significant climate challenges in water management?
Climate change disruption and drivers
1. How aware are your port of the potential impact of climate change on IWT?
2. Has your port environment experienced any extreme weather events that have disrupted your
operations before?
a. If yes, what disruptions were more challenging?
73
3. Can you describe what kind of measures your port has taken to prepare for such extreme weather
disruptions? (risk management)
4. What do you see as the main challenges in adapting to extreme weather disruptions?
Policies and public measures
1. Are you aware of any public policies in your country that addresses the impacts of extreme
weather on IWT?
a. If yes, have you implemented any?
b. If yes again, do you think the policies and measures by the public are enough?
2. What kind of extreme-weather related challenges will be of more importance in the future?
3. What kind of assistance or support do you think would be helpful for shippers and ports in the
IWT industry, in adapting to climate change?
Conclusion
1. Do you have any last comments on this topic?
Interview questions: EFIP
General questions
1. Can you tell us a bit about yourself and your experience in inland water transportation?
2. What is the current objective of EFIP and how do you work to reach your objectives?
Climate change disruption on inland ports
1. Do you think inland ports are affected by climate change or extreme weather?
2. What kind of climate change or extreme weather conditions are more serious for inland ports in
Europe? (Wind, water level, temperature, ice etc.)
3. Is the climate change or extreme weather impact on inland ports different depending on
geographical locations? If so, in what way?
4. Have they expressed how it affects their operations? (navigability, intermodality, capacity etc.)
5. What do you see as the main challenges for inland ports in adapting to extreme weather or
climate change disruptions?
Policies and measures
1. What are the existing transport policies or projects for inland ports focusing on do you think?
2. Are you aware of any public policies that address the impacts of extreme weather or climate
change on inland waterway transportation or ports?
3. Do you see any adaptation measures that have been successful and to the benefit of inland ports
or inland waterway transportation?
4. What kind of extreme-weather related challenges will be of more importance in the future for
inland ports in Europe?
Conclusion
1. Do you have any last comments on this topic
74
APPENDIX 2
Table 4. List of policies and measures developed by the EU relating to Climate related disruptions and
IWT.
Governance level Policy/Measure Adopted Direct/Indirect Climate change Policyimpact Category Sub-category Source
EU Mission: Indirect Mitigation Institutional Economics Link
European Union Climate-Neutral and 2022
Smart Cities
Watertruck+ 2021 Direct - IWT Mitigation Physical Structure Link
LIFE programme Indirect Adaptation Institutional Economics Link
2021
EU Adaptation Strategy Indirect Adaptation Institutional Governance Link
2021
Interreg: European Indirect Mitigation Institutional Economics Link
Territorial Co-operation 2021
VI
NAIADES III Action Direct - IWT Mitigation Physical Structure Link
Plan
2021
The Sustainable and Indirect Mitigation Institutional Governance Link
Smart Mobility strategy 2020
Horizon Europe Indirect Adaptation Institutional Economics Link
2020
EU Green Deal Indirect Mitigation Institutional Governance Link
2019
On effective waterway Direct - IWT Adaptation Physical Structure Link
infrastructure
rehabilitation and
maintenance on the 2016
Danube and its
navigable tributaries
CLean INland SHipping 2016 Direct - IWT Mitigation Institutional Economics Link(LIFE CLINSH)
75
On effective waterway Direct - IWT Adaptation Physical Structure Link
infrastructure
rehabilitation and
maintenance on the 2016
Danube and its
navigable tributaries
Horizon 2020 2014 Indirect Mitigation Social Information Link
Connecting Europe Direct - IWT Adaptation Institutional Economics Link
Facility (CEF) Inland 2014
Waterways Portfolio
Danube region strategy Direct - IWT Adaptation Physical Structure Link
- Fairway Rehabilitation
and Maintenance 2014
Master Plan
Trans-European Direct - IWT Mitigation Institutional Economics Link
Transport Network 2013
(Ten-T )
NAIADES II 2013 Direct - IWT Mitigation Physical Structure Link
Climate-Adapt Indirect Adaptation Social Information Link
2012
The White Paper 2011 2009 Indirect Mitigation Institutional governance Link
NAIADES 2006 Direct - IWT Mitigation Physical Structure Link
River Information Direct - IWT Adaptation Physical Structure Link
Service (RIS) n.d.
Table 5. List of policies and measures developed countries in Europe relating to Climate related
disruptions and IWT.
Governance level Policy/Measure Adopted Direct/Indirect Climate change Policyimpact Category Sub-category Source
Broadening och Direct - IWT Adaptation Physical Structures Link
Netherlands Twente-Kanaal 2023
Maasroute 2023 Direct - IWT Adaptation Physical Structures Link
Zandmaas 2023 Direct - IWT Adaptation Physical Structures Link
Afsluitdijk 2023 Direct - IWT Adaptation Physical Structures Link
Risk and resilience 2022 Direct - IWT Mitigation Institutional Funding Link
plan
Delta Programme 2018 Direct - IWT Adaptation Social Information Link
National Adaptation 2016 Indirect Adaptation Institutional Governance LinkStrategy (NAS)
76
Direct - IWT Adaptation Physical Structure Link
Rotterdam Climate
Change Adaptation
Strategy 2013
Rotterdam Climate Direct - IWT Adaptation Social Information Link
Proof Programme 2008
Germany Cimate Action 2021 Indirect Mitigation Physical Structure Link
Programme 2030
Immediate climate 2021 Direct Mitigation Institutional Economics Link
action programme for
2022
Climate Change act 2021 Indirect Mitigation Social Information Link
Rhine low-water Action 2019 Direct - IWT Adaptation Physical Structure Link
Plan
DAS Monitoring 2018 Indirect Adaptation Physical Structure Link
Federal Infrastructure 2016 Direct - IWT Mitigation Social Information Link
Plan
Climate Action Plan 2016 Indirect Mitigation Institutional Economics Link
Federal Infrastructure 2016 Direct - IWT Mitigation Social Information Link
Plan
The Climate Plan 2013 Indirect Adaptation Physical Structure Link
Action - City of
Hamburg
KLIWAS Impacts of 2011 Direct - IWT Adaptation Social Information Link
Climate Change on
Waterways and
Navigation in Germany
German Adaptation 2008 Indirect Adaptation Institutional Governance Link
Strategy
Belgium Risk and resilience 2021 Indirect Mitigation Institutional Economics Link
plan
National Adaptation 2017 Direct - IWT Adaptation Institutional Governance Link
Strategy
Flanders Vision 2050 2017 Indirect Adaptation Physical Structure Link
Flanders Adaptation 2013 Direct - IWT Adaptation Physical Structure Link
Plan
Flanders Mitigation 2013 Direct - IWT Mitigation Institutional Economics Link
Plan
France Climate resilient and 2023 Direct - IWT Adaptation Structure Structure Link
safe maritime ports
National Climate 2018 Indirect Adaptation Institutional Governance Link
Adaptation Plan
(PNACC-2)
77
National Climate 2011 Indirect Adaptation Institutional Regulation Link
Adaptation Plan
(PNACC-1)
National Adaptation 2006 Indirect Adaptation Social Information Link
Strategy
Romania Romania’s Sustainable 2019 Direct - IWT Adaptation Social Information Link
Development Goal
National Adaption 2013 Indirect Adaptation Social Information Link
Strategy
Romania Intermodal 2011 Indirect Mitigation Physical Structure Link
Transport Strategy
Bulgaria National Climate 2019 Indirect Adaptation Social Information Link
Change Adaptation
Strategy and Action
Plan
Strategy for the 2019 Indirect Mitigation Physical Structure Link
Development of the
Transport System of
the Republic of
Bulgaria until 2020
Integrated Transport 2017 Indirect Mitigation Physical Structure Link
Strategy for the Period
until 2030
Hungary National Adaptation 2018 Direct - IWT Adaptation Social Information Link
Strategy
NAGIS 2015 Indirect Adaptation Social Information Link
78