DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES On Translating Disorders An analysis of Mark Haddon’s The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time alongside its Japanese Translation Edvin Dizdarevic Essay/Thesis: 15 hp Program and/or course: JP1520 Subject: Japanese Term/Year: Autumn/2023 Supervisor: Lars Larm Examinator: Martin Nordeborg Abstract The present thesis has investigated the translation of mental disorders from an originally English work of fiction to its Japanese counterpart. The goal has been to ascertain if the aim of the source text is faithfully portrayed between language barriers and if a Japanese public, which is on average more sceptical towards individuals with behavioural problems, has been given an honest translation. In addition to a literary analysis of example sentences which serves as the basis for this research, a qualitative interview with a native speaker of Japanese was conducted to strengthen understanding and the credibility of any conclusive claims. As far as the scrutinized novel is concerned, three major conclusions can be drawn. Firstly, direct translation is utilized to portray the original feeling of mental disorder, sometimes at the expense of user friendliness. Secondly, grammatical structures and grammar exclusive to that of Japanese are employed, at times in combination with direct translations, mainly to substitute for the lack of proper translation in any other areas. Thirdly, when deemed overly complicated to translate, any nods to the protagonist’s disorder have been neglected and lost in translation. The study shows that ideas conceptualized with literary techniques can be conveyed also in the target language, even if the physical conceptualization of the written word must morph into a new form. The study also shows the potential methods translators grapple with when translating mental disorders between cultures of differing linguistic and psychiatric backgrounds. Contents 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 3 2 Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................... 3 3 Background ............................................................................................................................. 4 3.1 The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time.......................................................... 4 3.2 Autism and Japan.............................................................................................................. 5 4 Theoretical Background .......................................................................................................... 6 4.1 The Skopos Theory ........................................................................................................... 6 4.2 The Theory of Natural Equivalence ................................................................................. 6 5 Previous Research ................................................................................................................... 7 5.1 The Four Characteristics of ASD and Christopher’s Phraseology ................................... 7 5.1.1 Self-centrism .............................................................................................................. 8 5.1.2 Deficits in Communication ........................................................................................ 8 5.1.3 An Incapability of Understanding Other’s Thoughts and Emotions ......................... 8 5.1.4 A Need for Order and Clarity .................................................................................... 9 5.2 Translation Between English and Japanese ...................................................................... 9 5.2.1 Personal Deixis ........................................................................................................ 10 5.2.2 Direct and Indirect Speech ....................................................................................... 10 5.2.3 New and Given Information .................................................................................... 11 5.2.4 Relative clauses ........................................................................................................ 11 6 Method and Material ............................................................................................................. 12 6.1 Method ............................................................................................................................ 12 6.2 Material ........................................................................................................................... 13 6.2.1 Example sentences ................................................................................................... 13 6.2.1.1 Self-centrism and Personal Deixis .................................................................... 14 6.2.1.2 Communication Deficits in Direct Speech ........................................................ 15 1 6.2.1.3 Reiteration to Comprehend Other’s Thoughts and Emotions ........................... 17 6.2.1.4 Relative Clauses for Order and Clarity ............................................................. 18 6.2.2 Interview .................................................................................................................. 19 6.2.2.1 Direct Translation .............................................................................................. 20 6.2.2.2 Difficulties Translating Relative Clauses .......................................................... 20 7 Discussion and Results .......................................................................................................... 21 7.1 Self-centrism ................................................................................................................... 21 7.2 Deficits in Communication ............................................................................................. 22 7.3 An Incapability of Understanding Other’s Thoughts and Emotions .............................. 23 7.4 A Need for Order and Clarity ......................................................................................... 24 7.5 Final Conclusive Remarks .............................................................................................. 25 Cited Works .............................................................................................................................. 27 2 1 Introduction Autism spectrum disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder are but a few of many common diagnoses which affect the minds of millions upon millions of individuals. Non-fiction works and journal articles describing the symptoms readily exist in abundance, but seldomly do individuals with these or other disorders get proper mention in everyday literature. The limited literature which exists is, therefore, a treasure trove for diagnosed individuals to feel a sense of community in shared suffering and healing. Mark Haddon’s The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time is a novel which fits the criteria and has garnered much attention since the day of its release. In the chapter titled ‘Background’, the book and the disorder will be discussed as to guide the reader through unfamiliar particulars. Then, example sentences and a qualitative interview will serve as data to go alongside previously researched themes to create a stable foundation for the discussion. 2 Purpose of the Study Disorders can take on multiple shapes when transferred into written words, but translated versions of source texts can alter the nuance or intention the original author had in mind, either intentionally or unintentionally. Taking into consideration previous examinations of Haddon’s novel, this essay’s primarily goal will be to demonstrate how the many elements of disorder persist or disappear when translated between languages, and especially into ones which are grammatically and culturally different from English. The queries of this essay are as follows: ・ How is the original portrayal of the protagonist’s disorder preserved in the Japanese translation? Is the phraseology directly translated or are Japanese grammatical structures utilized to fulfill a similar role? ・ If the original portrayal is neglected and the unique phraseology disregarded, is it discernable for what purpose the novel has been translated? 3 3 Background 3.1 The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time, simply referred to as The Curious Incident from here on out, is a 2003 novel by author Mark Haddon following the fifteen-year-old Christopher as he strives to solve the mystery surrounding the sudden passing of his neighbor’s pet dog, all whilst making sense of the world through his unique and different cognitive abilities. The novel is, in-universe, written by the protagonist and, therefore, utilizes unorthodox phraseology and speech patterns reminiscent of his behavioral problems. Haddon manages to bring the reader into the mind of Christopher through the usage of unique phraseology, sentence construction, and speech acts, but there is no precise mention of what disorder Christopher struggles with, instead, Christopher refers to himself as someone who has behavioral problems. Although not outright stated, there has been discourse linking Christopher’s behavior to that of individuals with autism spectrum disorder, which will be investigated in a later section, and Mark Haddon (2015) himself has not outright denied these claims. However, Haddon does not emphasize his protagonist’s behavioral problems as problematic or abnormal. Instead, the goal was seemingly to portray disability and how it is perceived whilst also demonstrating how many of Christopher’s characteristics are common in a majority of the population as well. In a sense, readers are more similar to Christopher than they might have expected (Haddon, 2015). Despite Haddon’s (2015) vagueness concerning Christopher’s disorder and his reprehension toward the novel being utilized as a guidebook for therapists and doctors alike (Haddon, 2015), this is precisely what has happened. An article peer reviewed by Dr. Chittaranjan Andrade (2007) states that “The book brilliantly portrays the mind and behavior of a person with autism without being sentimental or condescending”, encouraging workers in the field of medicine and therapy to read Haddon’s work for inspiration (Andrade, 2007). For better or worse, Christopher has become a figure piece in the representation of disabled individuals in literature. Which is why The Curious Incident, with its distinctive writing style and its cultural impact, deserves to be further investigated beyond the language barrier separating English from the grammatically different Japanese. 4 3.2 Autism and Japan Before proceeding to examine the translation in contrast to the original work, it is of high importance to familiarize oneself with the terminology concerning autism spectrum disorder, as well as the cultural attitude spawned by Japanese society towards it. For the sake of accessibility and fairness, the label Asperger’s will not be termed in the running text due to it having fallen out of use within the medical community, instead being replaced by the much broader and encompassing autism spectrum disorder, herein written as ASD, or referred to as Christopher’s disorder, in wake of the book’s protagonist. ASD, according to The American Psychiatric Association (2013), is a neurodevelopmental disorder which is categorized by a plethora of deficits in social communication. ASD could, therefore, manifest as self-centrism or a preoccupation with the self with disregard to others, deficits in speech and grammar, an unwillingness to understand other’s thoughts and emotions or a lack of ability thereof, as well as a need for certainty and order (American Psychiatric Association, 2013, p. 50-54). These four characteristics of the disorder will play an important role when scrutinizing Christopher’s character, the structure of the written word in the novel, and ultimately the approach of the Japanese translation, for they are physically formalized by the author using linguistic techniques, as will be discussed in later sections. Before that, we will tackle the issues faced by autistic persons in Japan. Research headed by Fumio Someki et al. (2018) suggests that stigmatization towards individuals with ASD boasts a strong prevalence in Japanese society. The comparison between university students from the United States of America and university students from Japan clearly demonstrated baseline knowledge surrounding the disorder to be much higher amongst the American students. Furthermore, Japanese students showed a comparatively strong refusal to collaborate with or befriend autistic individuals (Someki et al., 2018, p. 91-93). This becomes a problem when it is further perpetuated by the state of Japanese culture and society. Hazel Rose Markus and Shinobu Kitayama (1991), as referred to in the research of Someki et al., define Japanese culture as a rigid ecosystem where the interests of the group outweigh the interests of the individual. Japanese citizens that are unique and stand out are, in other words, stigmatized (Markus & Kitayama, 1991, As cited in Someki et al., 2018, p. 89). Evidently, possessing traits of ASD would define the individual as unique or abnormal, and subsequently as a threat to the stability of the Japanese ecosystem. It is, therefore, ever the more important 5 for books such as The Curious Incident to be discussed and analyzed through the lens of Japanese society. 4 Theoretical Background 4.1 The Skopos Theory Katarina Reiss and Hans J. Vermeer (2014) deem every translation to be the product of a purpose, and likewise, deem every source text to be the product of a purpose. In other words, the author does not write without a clear motive as the translator does not translate without a clear motive, the enigma being to observe if a shift in motive occurs between the source text and the creation of the translated product. For instance, if the source text is aimed towards an intended audience, it has a clear purpose of existence. However, if the source text is then translated with another intended audience in mind, the purpose shifts, and so the translation will take on a new shape and form. It will not be bound by the original intent of the source text and might exist as a stand-alone entity (Reiss & Vermeer, 2014, p. 85, 90-92). Thus, the argument which the Skopos theory brings forth is that each and every written text, be it the original or a translation, exists in its current form due to the motive held by the creator. By comparing the translated version of The Curious Incident with the source text and keeping Haddon’s original intention of portraying disability in mind, it is possible to deduce whether or not the Japanese translation has a similar or different purpose. 4.2 The Theory of Natural Equivalence The theory of natural equivalence, as summarized by Anthony Pym (2010), argues that each and every concept or idea imaginable in language A has an equivalent in language B. According to the theory of natural equivalence, it is fully possible to translate a source text whilst keeping the intended flair intact, albeit different approaches might require the translator to think outside of the box. Pym exemplifies this by elaborating on translation between English’s unlucky day Friday the 13th and Spanish’s unlucky day Tuesday the 13th. The original concept of a day which 6 insinuates bad luck is present in both cultures, so the translator can achieve the original function by altering the calendar date to fit the culture of the intended audience (Pym, 2010, p. 6-8). However, arguments against the theory of natural equivalence are plentiful and no less vocal are linguists swooned by the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which according to J.A Lucy (2001) is the idea that the mother tongue forms the speaker’s way of thinking and worldview, and to directly quote Lucy, the theory deems that “languages differ significantly in their interpretations of experienced reality.” The Sapir-whorf hypothesis is not without its own critiques (Lucy, 2001), and so ultimately is in no position to question the Theory of Natural Equivalence. Interesting as this discourse may be, the scope of this essay does not include pitting theories against each other, and so whether the theory of natural equivalence is accepted or condemned by linguists, it will serve as crucial evidence when observing how Christopher’s disorder and speech is translated from English to Japanese. If the concepts exist and are possible to verbalize in English, nothing, in theory, could prevent the Japanese translation from verbalizing the same concepts. 5 Previous Research 5.1 The Four Characteristics of ASD and Christopher’s Phraseology In order to efficiently structure this essay, the many characteristics spouted by individuals with ASD have been decreased to a number of four. As indicated previously, these four traits will serve as the definite framework for understanding why Christopher acts the way he acts and how his behavior is shown using linguistic techniques. Furthermore, the four traits will also serve as a demarcation for what translated passages will be observed and discussed. The four traits include, self-centrism, deficits in communication, an incapability to understand other’s thoughts and emotions, and a need for order and clarity. 7 5.1.1 Self-centrism Elena Semino (2014) argues that, through observation of the personal deixis used in the novel, it is fair to ascertain Christopher’s behavioral problems to fall on the autism spectrum disorder. The first-person pronoun ‘I’ sees an extensively high usage rate whereas the second person pronoun ‘you’ sees an extensively low usage rate, especially in comparison to other novels also written in the style of a first-person narrative. This, Semino argues, is sufficient proof that Christopher is overly self-centered, which is one of the characteristics of autism spectrum disorder (Semino, 2014, p. 289-292). 5.1.2 Deficits in Communication Semino (2014) proposes an example of Christopher’s impaired communication to be the robotic manner in which he phrases conversations in direct speech. As suggested with examples ripped from the novel, Christopher has a tendency to begin many of his sentences with the conjunction ‘and’, followed by whomever speaks, ultimately placing this information before the utterance rather than after it, which is the more orthodox structure (Semino, 2014, p. 292-294). 5.1.3 An Incapability of Understanding Other’s Thoughts and Emotions Nadja Luckin (2013) claims that Christopher has difficulties in separating already given information from new information and presents evidence through studying how often reiteration of the same word occurs in contrast to reference or ellipsis, reference being replacing the word with ‘it’, whilst ellipsis referring to complete omission. Even though unnecessary, Christopher is shown to reiterate words which are not important to the context of the passage. These words, argues Luckin, would in a different novel have been either rephrased or removed completely. The reason for their inclusion can be found within the protagonist himself and his incapability of constructing and understanding mental states in other individuals. Christopher feels ushered to repeatedly reference the same word in fear the recipient would fail to understand (Luckin, 2013, p. 26, 27, 29, 30-32). Robin Dunbar (2022) introduces the concept of intentionality and its five levels. An entity with first level of intention can only fathom its own existence but nothing outside of the self, whereas an entity with fifth level of intention can fathom its own existence, the fact that other entities hold their own existences, and even 8 construct mental states from within the brains of other entities. Whilst our species possesses fifth level of intentionality, Dunbar explains that individuals with ASD have a more difficult time understanding other’s thoughts compared to those labeled as normal (Dunbar, 2022, p. 115-123). Simply put, as Christopher would experience troubles in regard to his intentionality, it is understandable that he would excessively reiterate given information as if it were new information. 5.1.4 A Need for Order and Clarity The final trait of ASD, the need for order and clarity, is accounted for, once again, by Luckin (2013), for she ascertains that Christopher avoids so called complexity at phrase level in order to have a structured order and clarity to his writing and speech. Evidently, Christopher refuses to locate words in attributive position in front of the noun phrase and, instead, rephrases the utterance to create a relative clause and position the additional information at the end. To exemplify, in his novel, Christopher writes ‘orange waterproof’ as ‘waterproof which is orange’, and ‘Italian coffee maker’ as ‘coffee maker which is from Italy’ (Luckin, 2013, p. 26, 27, 29, 30-32). 5.2 Translation Between English and Japanese Due to the nature of English and Japanese, some grammatical points are problematic to convey when transferring information from one language to the other. However, as was pointed out in the section of natural equivalence, there will always be an equivalent way of expressing the same notion in the target language as in the source language, even if words cannot be literally translated between the languages. Thus, even if the grammar proves to be a difficult barrier to break through, a completely different approach could solve the problem of untranslatability. In this section, attention will be paid to the needed approaches which might force the translator of The Curious Incident to think outside of the box and verbalize the original intent of the source text with stylistic choices only permissible in Japanese, reminiscent of how Friday the 13th morphed into Tuesday the 13th, losing the direct translation but protecting the original meaning of a day shrouded in bad luck. It should be noted that this portion of the essay is entirely 9 theoretical and only attempts to hypothesize which approaches the translation could take judging by the nature of the Japanese language. Also, the structure of this sub-chapter will be identical to the structure of the previous sub-chapter, following the already determined order of the four traits of ASD. 5.2.1 Personal Deixis According to the definition provided by Natsuko Tsujimura (2014), noun ellipsis occurs when the subject or object are dropped and, except for a few instances of informal conversation, is entirely ungrammatical in the English language. However, this is not the case for Japanese and, to directly quote Tsujimura, “when the speaker believes that the listener knows the identity of the entity or individual … the speaker chooses not to overtly express the NP.” It is, therefore, natural to exclude the subjects or objects and shrink the Japanese sentence to only a few words of necessary information (Tsujimura, 2014, p. 251-252). Christopher overemphasizes personal pronouns in his speech for reasons mentioned in previous parts of this essay. It is, therefore, of unequivocal importance to consider this difference between English and Japanese which puts limitations on the former but allows the latter to drop the pronoun entirely. The mere existence of pro-drop in Japanese can make or break the original intent of the source text if not properly executed. 5.2.2 Direct and Indirect Speech Judy Wakabayashi (2021) proposes that direct speech is utilized more frequently by writers of Japanese than by writers of English (Wakabayashi, 2021, p.145, 146), and since Christopher’s mechanical way of speech manifests particularly in direct speech, as suggested by Semino (2014) in their research, (Semino, 2014, p. 292-294), the direct speech in the translated version will play a key role in determining whether or not the original feeling of impaired communication is professionally or poorly transferred. However, Wakabayashi (2021) points out that, although frequent in Japanese novels, direct speech functions slightly differently compared to how it functions in English. Dialogue tags which indicate speaker and speech verbs like ‘to say’ are seldomly used and often substituted in favor of role-language embedded within the utterance to indicate speaker, age, and gender (Wakabayashi, 2021, p. 148-149). Gendered 10 language is further elaborated upon by Shoichi Iwasaki (2013) who distinguishes between male and female speech through sentence final particles. To illustrate an example, the zo particle would commonly follow the utterance of a male speaker whereas wa or wa yo would follow the utterance of a female speaker (Iwasaki, 2013, p. 326-327). In Japanese, there is a choice to be made between indirectly distinguishing speaker through role language or directly through mentioning their involvement in conversation. Christopher’s robotic speech is highlighted through his usage of conjunctions, dialogue tags and verbs of speech, but a poor execution could render the original intent of showcasing speech impairment lost in translation. 5.2.3 New and Given Information Returning to Christopher’s incapability of discerning new information from given information, Tsujimura (2014) provides an example for how this distinction is made in Japanese using two different topic markers: wa and ga. If new information is to be introduced, the topic marker ga is attached to the information as a suffix, whereas the topic marker wa is attached when the speaker reintroduces already known pieces of information (Tsujimura, 2014, p. 377-378). Christopher should in theory, therefore, mark reiterated words with the ga particle despite them being considered already given information. 5.2.4 Relative clauses Tsujimura (2014) exemplifies the relative clause as a modifier belonging to the same category as adjectives. For English, words such as ‘which’, ‘that’ and ‘who’ are needed to link sentences together, whereas for Japanese, the modifier is seamlessly attached without additional content. The sentence order of Japanese and English is another divergence where the relative clause in Japanese precedes the modified entity whilst the relative clause in English follows the modified entity (Tsujimura, 2014, p. 284-285). Japanese relative clauses can be further defined within two headings which Yoko Hasegawa (2012) refers to as gapless relative clauses and internally headed relative clauses. The gapless relative clause is the relative clause which Japanese shares with English and is the standard one used by both languages. The English example provided by Hasegawa is “a book that helps you learn to be more considerate of others”, whilst the Japanese example she provides is “hito ni yasashiku nareru hon” (Hasegawa, 2012, p. 149, 153). In 11 terms of filling the same purpose as gapless relative clauses, they are identical, despite the fact that English places the information after the head noun with the help-word ‘that’ whereas Japanese places it ahead of it in attributive position. The second type of relative clause which Hasegawa (2012) mentions is the internally headed relative clause which exists in Japanese but not in English. The sentence Hasegawa introduces as “I ate the apple that was on the table” would, translated into Japanese using an internally headed relative clause, appear as such: “ringo o tēburu no ue ni atta no o tabeta”. Directly translated into English, this sentence would be grammatically incorrect (Hasegawa, 2012, p. 151, 152). To achieve order and clarity, Christopher constructs his sentences in such a way that they overutilize the gapless relative clause. See the previously explained example of ‘orange waterproof’ contra ‘waterproof which is orange’. Japanese grammar might not allow for similar relocations of words, but it does allow for an entirely different type of relative clause to be created. Whether the internally headed relative clause is used, or an entirely different method is approached, it does not matter as long as the translation does not suffer as a result. 6 Method and Material 6.1 Method Two methods will be used. Firstly, a strict analysis of a literary text grounded in example sentences ripped from the English and Japanese versions, respectively. The original English novel authored by Mark Haddon will be compared to the Japanese counterpart translated by Fusa Obi. The example sentences will be considered with the four characteristics of ASD as a basis for evaluation. The English source text is already thought to represent Christopher’s condition and any similarities to, or divergences from this source text discovered in the Japanese translation will be of use as evidence to answer the essay’s questions. The example sentences will be followed by a short comparison and explanation as to why they have been included. The thorough investigation with references to previous research and interview material will be included in the final chapter of this essay. Secondly, a qualitative interview with a native speaker of Japanese will be conducted to establish whether or not the Japanese found in The Curious Incident is natural or unnatural to the trained, native ear. This is critical for a plethora 12 of reasons; however, it is mainly to ascertain whether or not the text is written using unorthodox phraseology not commonly found in other Japanese novels. The author of this essay has a solid grasp of the Japanese language as a second language but lacks the intuitive knowledge to discern natural from unnatural writing, which is why a respondent will be consulted in regard to the readability and flow of the written word of the translation. The respondent, being a native speaker, will also have had much more exposure to novels written and translated by Japanese authors, strengthening their credibility thanks to the insurmountable amount of material they can draw from when presented with passages from The Curious Incident. The answers provided by the respondent, together with the deductions drawn from comparing the source text with the translation, will make up the material to discuss the focal questions this essay begs to ask. 6.2 Material 6.2.1 Example sentences The Hepburn system for romanization will be used when transliterating Japanese text using the English alphabet. Furthermore, a short explanation of notable concepts will be presented beneath each text extract. These short explanations do not constitute the whole analysis, which will take place in a later chapter titled ‘Discussion and Results’. Each example sentence is divided into three parts: source text, target language Japanese, and Japanese romanization. To ease the process of referring back to previous example sentences, each sentence will be labeled with a corresponding number and letter. Target language Japanese and Japanese romanization are split into two categories to aid readers unfamiliar with the Japanese writing system, but only the former will be referred back to during the analysis. The general amount of example sentences is kept at the lower end to avoid repetition of already established deductions. All phenomena present in the example sentences below reoccur in most parts of The Curious Incident, thus requiring no further mention. More does not always equal better, so these carefully chosen extracts can be thought of as a representation of the whole. However, it is true that this approach relies heavily on a small sample size where large conclusions are drawn from limited data, possibly impacting credibility of the results. 13 6.2.1.1 Self-centrism and Personal Deixis (1a) Source text: When we came in through the front door I went into the kitchen and got a carrot for Toby and I went upstairs and I shut the door of my room and I let Toby out and gave him the carrot (p. 27). (1b) Target language JPN: 玄関のドアから入るとキッチンへ行ってトビーの食べるニンジ ンを取ってきて、二階へあがってぼくの部屋のドアを閉めてトビーを外に出してやりニ ンジンをやった。 (1c) Target language ROM: Genkan no doa kara hairu to kicchin e itte, tobī no taberu ninjin o tottekite, nikai e agatte boku no heya no doa o shimete, tobī o soto ni dashiteyari, ninjin o yatta (p. 42). The English source text features the personal pronoun ‘I’ four times whereas the Japanese translation features the personal pronoun boku in genitive case rather than nominative case, and it does so only once. (2a) Source text: And at the weekend I make up my own timetable and I write it down on a piece of cardboard and I put it up on the wall (p. 193). (2b) Target language JPN: それで週末にはぼくは自分の時間表を作ってそれをボール紙に書いて壁にはっておく。 (2c) Target language ROM. Sore de shūmatsu ni wa boku wa jibun no jikokuhyō o tsukutte, sore o bōrugami ni kaite, kabe ni hatteoku (p. 257). The English source text features the personal pronoun ‘I’ three times whereas the Japanese translation features the personal pronoun boku only once. (3a) Source text: And then I couldn’t see the sign anymore. And I had forgotten to remember where it was, and this was frightening because I was lost and because I do not forget things. And normally I would make a map in my head and I would follow the map and I would be a little cross on the map that showed where I was, but there was too much interference in my head and this had made me confused (p. 172). (3b) Target language JPN: それからあのマークが見えなくなった。それでぼくは、それがどこにあるかおぼえてお くことを忘れていた、それでぼくはこわくなった、なぜかというとぼくは迷子になって しまったのだ、ぼくはものを忘れないはずだったのに。ぼくはふつうは頭のなかに地図 をかいて、その地図にしたがって歩いて、そしてその地図の上でぼくがいまどこにいる 14 か小さいばってんをつけておく、しかしいまは頭のなかにいっぱいじゃまものが入って いるので、それでぼくは混乱してしまった。 (3c) Target language ROM: Sore kara ano māku ga mienakunatta. Sore de boku wa, sore ga doko ni aru ka oboeteoku koto o wasureteita, sore de boku wa kowakunatta, naze ka to iu to boku wa maigo ni natteshimatta no da, boku wa mono o wasurenai hazu datta no ni. Boku wa futsū wa atama no naka ni chizu o kaite, sono chizu ni shitagatte aruite, soshite sono chizu no ue de boku ga ima doko ni iru ka chīsai batten o tsuketeoku, shikashi ima wa atama no naka ni ippai jyamamono ga haitteiru node, sore de boku wa konran shiteshimatta (p. 229–230). The English source text features the personal pronoun ‘I’ eight times whilst the Japanese translation features the personal pronoun boku seven times. In contrast to earlier passages, (3b) is the most faithful to the source text. 6.2.1.2 Communication Deficits in Direct Speech (4a) Source text: Then I asked, ‘Did Mr. Shears kill Mother?’ And Mrs. Alexander said, ‘Kill her?’ And I said, ‘Yes. Did he kill Mother?’ And Mrs. Alexander said, ‘No. No. Of course he didn’t kill your mother.’ (p. 73) (4b) Target language JPN: そこでぼくはきいた、「ミスタ・シェアーズがお母さんを殺したんですか？」 そしたらミセス・アレグザンダーはいった、「お母さんを殺した？」 それでぼくはいった、「はい。彼がお母さんを殺したんですか？」 そしたらミセス・アレグザンダーはいった、「いえ。いえ。とんでもない、彼はあなた のお母さんを殺してなんかいないわよ」 (4c) Target language ROM: Soko de boku wa kīta, ”Misutā sheāzu ga okāsan o koroshitandesuka?” Soshitara misesu arekuzandā wa itta, ”Okāsan o koroshita?” Sore de boku wa itta, ”Hai. Kare ga okāsan o koroshitandesuka?” Soshitara misesu arekuzandā wa itta, ”Ie, ie. Tondemonai. Kare wa anata no okāsan wo koroshite nanka inai wa yo.” (p. 101) The Japanese translation follows the English source text faithfully with unconventional positioning of speaker and speech verb ahead of the utterance left unaltered. In addition to speech verbs and speaker, sentence final particle and role language wa yo cements Ms. Shear’s gender, age, and personality, even though it has already been implicitly stated. (5a) Source text: I said, ‘I didn’t kill the dog.’ 15 He said, ‘Do you know that it is wrong to lie to a policeman and that you can get into a very great deal of trouble if you do?’ I said, ‘Yes.’ He said, ‘So, do you know who killed the dog?’ I said, ‘No.’ (p. 22) (5b) Target language JPN: ぼくはいった、「ぼくは犬を殺していない」 彼は言った、「警察に嘘をつくのは悪いことだとしっているかい？そんなことをすると 大変な面倒にまきこまれるということを？」 ぼくはいった、「はい」 彼はいった、「それでは、だれがあの犬を殺したのかきみは知っているのか？」 ぼくはいった、「いいえ」 (5c) Target language ROM: Boku wa itta, “Boku wa inu o koroshiteinai.” Kare wa itta, ”Keisatsu ni uso o tsuku no wa warui koto da to shitteiru kai? Sonna koto o suru to taihen na mendō ni makikomareru to iu koto o?” Boku wa itta, ”Hai.” Kare wa itta, ”Sore de wa, dare ga ano inu o koroshita no ka kimi wa shitteiru no ka?” Boku wa itta, ”Iie.” (p. 37) The structure of direct speech in the translation is persistent with the source text. Sentence final particle kai is interpreted to belong to the same category of words as wa yo in (4b/c). (6a) Source text: And Mother shouted, ‘What in God’s name did you think you were playing at, saying those things to him?’ And Father shouted, ‘What was I playing at? You were the one that bloody left.’ (p. 239) (6b) Target language JPN: そしたらお母さんがどなった、「いったいなんのつもりで、あの子にあんなことをいっ たのよ？」 そしたらお父さんがどなった、「なんのつもりでだと？家を出てったのはきさまなんだ ぞ」 (6c) Target language ROM: Soshitara okāsan ga donatta, “Ittai nan no tsumori de ano ko ni anna koto o itta no yo?” Soshitara otōsan ga donatta, “Nan no tsumori de da to? Ie wo detetta no wa kisama nanda zo.” (p. 322) The structure of direct speech in the translation is persistent with the source text. Both Christopher’s mother and Christopher’s father are seen utilizing role language in (6b) when shouting at one another. His mother drops the copula da whilst his father adds the sentence final particle zo to his speech. 16 6.2.1.3 Reiteration to Comprehend Other’s Thoughts and Emotions (7a) Source text: It looked as if it was running on its side, the way dogs run when they think they are chasing a cat in a dream. But the dog was not running or asleep. The dog was dead. There was a garden fork sticking out of the dog. The points of the fork must have gone all the way through the dog and into the ground because the fork had not fallen over. I decided that the dog was probably killed with the fork because I could not see any other wounds in the dog and I do not think you would stick a garden fork into a dog after it had died for some other reason, like cancer for example, or a road accident (p. 1). (7b) Target language JPN: なんだか横になって走っているみたいで、犬が猫を追いかけて走っている夢をみている ときみたいなかっこうだった。しかし犬は走っているのでも眠っているのでもなかっ た。犬は死んでいた。犬の体から庭仕事に使うフォークが突きだしていた。フォークの 先は犬の体をつらぬいて地面に突きささっているはずだ、なぜかというとフォークはた おれていない。犬はたぶんそのフォークで殺されたのだとぼくは結論した、なぜかとい うと犬の体にほかの傷は見えないし、それになにかほかの理由で、たとえば癌とか交通 事故とかで犬が死んだあとにフォークを突きさすひとがいるとは思えない。 (7c) Target language ROM: Nandaka yoko ni natte hashitteiru mitai de, inu ga neko o oikakete hashitteiru yume o miteiru toki mitaina kakkō datta. Shikashi, inu wa hashitteiru nodemo nemutteiru nodemo nakatta. Inu wa shindeita. Inu no karada kara niwashigoto ni tsukau fōku ga tsukidashiteita. Fōku no saki wa inu no karada wo tsuranuite jimen ni tsukisasatteiru hazu da, naze ka to iu to fōku wa taoreteinai. Inu wa tabun sono fōku de korosaretanoda to boku wa ketsuron shita, naze ka to iu to inu no karada ni hoka no kizu wa mienai shi, sore ni nanika hoka no riyū de, tatoeba gan toka kōtsūjiko toka de inu ga shinda ato ni fōku o tsukisasu hito ga iru to wa omoenai (p. 7). The word inu is reiterated for a total of eight times, the same number of times the word ‘dog’ is reiterated. Inu appears in tandem with the case particle ga when first introduced to the reader and is on subsequent reiterations marked with the case particle wa. For the most part, inu serves as the subject, but on some occasions, is shown in genitive case modifying karada, meaning ‘the body of the dog’ or ‘the dog’s body’. (8a) Source text: Then I was really confused because Mother had never worked as a secretary for a firm that made things out of steel. Mother had worked as a secretary for a big garage in the centre of town. And Mother had never lived in London. Mother had always lived with us. And Mother had never written a letter to me before (p. 123) (8b) Target language JPN: そこでぼくの頭はとても混乱してしまった、なぜかというとお母さんは鋼鉄の板でもの を作る会社で秘書なんかしていたことはないからだ。お母さんは、町のまんなかにある 大きな自動車修理工場の秘書をやっていた。そしてお母さんはロンドンに住んでいたこ 17 とはない。お母さんはいつもぼくたちといっしょに住んでいた。そしてお母さんはぼく に手紙を書いたことは一度もない。 (8c) Target language ROM: Soko de boku no atama wa totemo konran shiteshimatta, naze ka to iu to okāsan wa kōtetsu no ita demono o tsukuru kaisha de hisho nanka shiteita koto wa nai kara da. Okāsan wa, machi no mannaka ni aru ōkina jidōsha shūri kōjyō no hisho o yatteita. Soshite okāsan wa rondon ni sundeita koto wa nai. Okāsan wa itsumo bokutachi to isshoni sundeita. Soshite okāsan wa boku ni tegami o kaita koto wa ichidomo nai (p. 165). Okāsan is reiterated for a total of five times, the same number of times ‘mother’ is reiterated, and only ever appears in tandem with the case particle wa. (9a) Source text: I wondered if this was a joke, because I don’t understand jokes, and when people tell jokes they don’t mean what they say (p. 150). (9b) Target language JPN: これはジョークじゃないかとぼくは思った、なぜかというとぼくにはジョークは理解で きないからだ、そして人がジョークをいうときは、本気でいっているのではないから だ。 (9c) Target language ROM: Kore wa jyōku jyanai ka to boku wa omotta, naze ka to iu to boku ni wa jyōku wa rikai dekinai kara da, soshite hito ga jyōku o iu toki wa, honki de itteiru node wa nai kara da (p. 202). Jyōku is reiterated for a total of three times, the same number of times ‘joke’ is reiterated. With regard to other forms of reiteration, the set-phrase naze ka to iu to is repeated twice in (7b), once in (8b) and once in (9b). Further explanation on this grammatical function will be provided later. 6.2.1.4 Relative Clauses for Order and Clarity (10a) Source text: And then I get some dry clothes from the house of a family who are dead (p. 244). (10b) Target language JPN: それからぼくは死んでしまったひとたちの家から乾いた服を取ってくる。 (10c) Target Language ROM: Sore kara boku wa shindeshimatta hitotachi no ie kara kawaita fuku o tottekuru (p. 328). 18 Shindeshimatta hitotachi is more akin to dead people rather than people who are dead, thus losing the original nuance and intent of the source text. (11a) Source text: So I went and got my waterproof which is orange (p. 108). (11b) Target language JPN: そこでぼくはオレンジ色のレインコートを取ってきた。 (11c) Target language ROM: Soko de boku wa orenji iro no reinkōto wo tottekita (p. 146). Orenji iro no reinkōto is more akin to ‘orange waterproof’ rather than ‘a waterproof which is orange’, thus losing the original nuance and intent of the source text. (12a) Source text: She had long fingernails which were painted pink (p. 210). (12b) Target language JPN: 長い爪をピンクにぬっていた。 (12c) Target language ROM: Nagai tsume o pinku ni nutteita (p. 282). Lastly, (12) is different from but also similar to (11) in a number of aspects. Even though both orange and pink are adjectives of color, (12b) has transformed pinku into an adverb and introduced the verb nuru in present continuous, indicating a present state of being. Utilizing this technique, the translator avoids placing both Japanese adjectives ahead of the word tsume and creates a similar word order to that of the English sentence, the adjective ‘long’ in attributive position and the adjective ‘pink’ inserted in a relative clause. 6.2.2 Interview The structure of this sub-chapter will be somewhat different from remaining sections due to the nature of the conducted interview. Instead of predetermined questions, a more informal, casual approach was attempted where the anonymous respondent was asked to identify portions of the Japanese translation which stood out as peculiar, unorthodox, or unnatural. The interviewee is a Japanese national and university graduate holding a bachelor’s degree in international law, and the interview oscillated between English and Japanese, which might have a slight impact 19 on word choice. Although referred to as an interview, the respondent has been consulted multiple times throughout the writing of this thesis, sometimes in the form of emails or text messages. Two major drawbacks to the inclusion of only one consultant is that their views do not necessarily represent the whole of Japanese society and that the data would have had less room for error if one or two more individuals were invited. 6.2.2.1 Direct Translation All opinions, ideas and suggestions moving forward are courtesy of the consultant if nothing else has been specified. According to the consultant, direct speech as seen in (4), (5) and (6) is not natural for a Japanese novel due to its childish and unsophisticated appearance. This holds true for the repetition of personal deixis in (1), (2), and (3), and the reiteration of words in (7), (8) and (9) as well. It is, however, a convincing translation because it captures the original intent with clarity, but it does so at the cost of user friendliness due to the eccentricity brought upon by direct translation. Additionally, the cooccurrence of role language and accentuated speaker, as well as reiteration of the formal naze ka to iu to instead of simpler conjunctions like kara or node, perpetuates additional unnaturalness. On the other hand, the consultant commends the symbiosis of direct translation with natural expressions such as the grammar point dashite yari, for it shows that the translator endeavored to stay faithful wherever they saw fit. This expression in particular shows the speaker’s elevated position towards the listener in a condescending way, succeeding in highlighting the trait of self-centrism even better than the repetition of personal pronouns. 6.2.2.2 Difficulties Translating Relative Clauses Linking words such as ‘who’, ‘that’, and ‘which’ are not used in Japanese relative clauses, so in order to test students’ English level, a sentence like ‘a family who are dead’ could appear as a real question on an exam. For the student to properly show the examinator that they have understood the grammar, they would write the Japanese word for family, followed by a comma to represent any linking word, and then the Japanese word for dead. The following is an example of how a Japanese student would write their answer on an exam sheet: 家族、死んでしまった Kazoku, shindeshimatta 20 This sentence does not function grammatically but could serve as a last resort if no alternative is found. On another note, shinda has been written as shindeshimatta in (10b), which is a way for Japanese speakers to conjugate grievances or unfairness into the verb. This way of nuance portrayal is not present in English, so this stylistic choice could have been selected as a way to compensate for the relative clause’s removal. ‘Waterproof which is orange’ found in (11a) is deemed functionally impossible to translate into a Japanese relative clause. That being the case, it is still possible to split the sentence into two separate ones as such: ‘I picked up my waterproof. It was orange.’ One way to translate relative clauses is to recognize them as two sentences merged into one, and then separate them accordingly, but the final product would end up being even more bizarre than the direct translation in (11b). When all is said and done, it is up to any given translator to weigh the pros and cons of these propositions. 7 Discussion and Results 7.1 Self-centrism Turning now our attention to the example sentences, in (1a) Christopher repeats the personal pronoun ‘I’ for a total of four times, whilst in (1b) utters it once, and the same can be said for (2a) and (2b) where ‘I’ is repeated thrice and boku included once. So far, the observations are in line with Tsujimura’s (2014) explanation of noun ellipsis. The ellipsis occurs when speaker and listener agree on already established information (Tsujimura, 2014, p. 251-252), but if Christopher suffers an impaired level of intentionality which, according to Dunbar (2022), is a common theme for individuals with ASD (Dunbar, 2022, p. 115-123), he should struggle to understand the intracerebral workings of his conversation partner, thereby resulting in his abusing of repetition. My consultant acknowledges this absence of repetition but pays more attention to the agglutinative yaru construction attached to the conjugated verb dashite in (1b). This, they think, succeeds in highlighting the feeling of self-centrism better than the repetition of a personal deixis. Thus, even if no personal pronoun is implicitly mentioned, the translator still manages to showcase Christopher’s self-centrism through grammatical conjugations 21 exclusive to the Japanese language. Moreover, unlike its companions, (3b) stays faithful to the source text in terms of repetition of personal deixis, featuring it seven times. This result is significant for it confirms the queries asked at the beginning of this essay. Christopher’s wording is at times disregarded altogether, at times directly translated, and at times replaced with grammar distinctive of Japanese. Passages (1), (2) and (3) illustrate the many methods Fusa Obi experimented with in their translation. 7.2 Deficits in Communication As was illustrated by Wakabayashi (2021) in the fifth chapter of this essay, Japanese direct speech refrains from mentioning speaker and speech verb to instead portray age, gender, and other attributes through role language (Wakabayashi, 2021, p. 145, 146, 148, 149). The direct speech found in The Curious Incident deviates from Wakabayashi’s definition in the following ways. Firstly, both speaker and speech verbs in (4b) are written in similar fashion to (4a), including Christopher’s favored method of placing information ahead of instead of after the utterances. My consultant finds this formatting to be unsophisticated and reminiscent of English literature. Japanese readers would, on first glance, realize the book to be translated and not of native origin. Secondly, even though the actors are established as Christopher and Mrs. Alexander, the Japanese version of the latter still utilizes role language in the form of wa yo, categorized by Iwasaki (2013) as female role language (Iwasaki, 2013, p. 326-327). It is already evident that Mrs. Alexander speaks, but nonetheless, female role language is utilized to build her personality and differentiate her speech from that of Christopher’s. Further inessential inclusion of role language can be witnessed in both (5b) and (6b). The question thus becomes, for whom is this role language included? If not for the benefit of the reader, it could be for the benefit of Christopher to distinguish personalities and characters when writing his novel, but if role language requires an understanding of personality traits, it is unclear why Christopher can use them as eloquently as he does, considering his condition. Some conclusions can be drawn from this information. On the one hand, Fusa Obi has managed to portray the struggles of Christopher as he writes the dialogue for his novel, following Haddon’s original intentions of showcasing behavioral problems, but on the other hand, relies heavily on direct translation, sacrificing readability for faithfulness and possibly alienating a Japanese audience. In general, this could prove to be an issue, but I wish to argue 22 the opposite in the case of The Curious Incident. If Christopher’s speech is mechanical and his wording unorthodox, this foreign feeling in the Japanese translation could add beneficial nuance in the absence of other literary mechanisms like reiteration or profound usage of relative clauses. 7.3 An Incapability of Understanding Other’s Thoughts and Emotions In the opening chapter of the novel, Christopher stumbles upon the corpse of his neighbor’s pet dog and, under presumable shock, repeats the word ‘dog’ eight times in (7a) and the word inu seven times in (7b). Through this example, it is safe to argue that the method of literarily portraying ASD through reiteration instead of ellipsis or reference is present also in the Japanese translation. The translator had the option to exclude inu on several occasions when used in tandem with the word karada: meaning body. ‘The body’, which could stand on its own, became ‘the body of the dog’ or ‘the dog’s body’. Thus, it is evident that the translator intentionally reiterated inu as a literary mechanism to make Christopher’s behavioral problems recognizable even beyond language barriers. Drawing on Tsujimura’s (2014) distinction between the case particles wa and ga, a couple of conclusive remarks can be said with regards to Christopher’s reiteration of words. Judging based on Japanese grammatical rules, wa accompanies given information whilst ga accompanies new information (Tsujimura, 2014, p. 377-378), but as demonstrated in example sentences (7) and (8), Christopher uses wa on repeated instances, with the exception for when ‘the dog’ is introduced as a topic in (7). Observing Luckin’s thesis in a vacuum would yield limited cause for debate, but contrasted against the Japanese translation, it is to ascertain whether the thesis mistook the reason for reiteration or if Obi employed an incorrect case particle. Luckin’s thesis might have been far more convincing if multiple translations were scrutinized, but since it was outside the scope of their research, there is no ground for criticism. What stands is a Japanese translation with reiteration akin to the source text but reiterated for a reason other than the incapability of discerning new information from given information. Either the translation failed to do the source text justice, or Luckin’s proposed argument for reiteration should be further analyzed. Nonetheless, the third characteristic of ASD is present in the translation and showcases Christopher’s disorder to a Japanese audience. 23 In all three example sentences of reiteration, the grammar point naze ka to iu to is repeatedly included. Through a comparison with the source text, it is understandable that this grammatical structure is a direct equivalent to the conjunction ‘because’. However, as the respondent explains, there are a plethora of other means to translate ‘because’ into Japanese, some much more fitting than naze ka to iu to. When including this grammar point over the likes of kara or node, there might have been an attempt from the translator to create a more orderly or rigid structure to the text. Written in isolation would be no cause for concern, but its frequent repetition facilitates in the minds of Japanese readers an unnatural, direct translation. Taking all of this into account, one could argue the repetition to be an intentional move on the translator’s part rather than a one-off or accident. Similar to the direct speech reminiscent of English prose, the case of naze ka to iu to and the foreign feeling it exacerbates ought not be considered in the negative, for it is an excellent way of compromising for unorthodox phraseology lost in other areas. 7.4 A Need for Order and Clarity There is a difference in nuance between ‘a dead family’ and ‘a family who are dead’, especially if Christopher structures relative clauses to establish order and clarity, but the Japanese translation does not do this justice with shindeshimatta hito tachi. As stated previously by Hasegawa (2012), there are two ways in which relative clauses may be formed in Japanese: gapless relative clauses and internally headed relative clauses (Hasegawa, 2012, p. 149, 151-153), but in this instance, the internally headed relative clause seems to be unusable and, thus, variation at sentence level is limited. The traits of the relative clause elaborated upon by Tsujimura (2014) exemplifies how the relative clause is placed before the modified entity in English whilst the opposite holds true for Japanese. Additionally, Tsujimura includes adjectives in the same category as relative clauses (Tsujimura, 2014, p. 284-285), which is vital to keep in mind when analyzing this particular section. To exemplify, ‘a dead family’ and ‘a family who are dead’ are both translated as shindeshimatta hito tachi into Japanese because Japanese locates both its relative clause and its adjectives in attributive position ahead of the modified entity, limiting the flexibility of relocating words which is present in English. Despite these limitations, additional methods of translating relative clauses 24 into Japanese exist, albeit in crude form, and are summarized by the respondent as one: imitating the formulation of exam questions and two: the division of one relative clause into two separate sentences. Considering that none of these suggestions were included in the final product, in addition to exclusion of the internally headed relative clause, it is fair to say that the translator had a set of semi-viable options provided by the Japanese language but decided to neglect the nuance and prioritize readability. However, the consultant does recognize the conjugated form of shinda into shindeshimatta in (10b) as a possible compensation for nuance lost due to the removal of the relative clause, but its inclusion, according to the writer of this essay, does more harm than good. If Christopher has troubles understanding other’s emotions, he should not refer to a dead family with the shimatta-conjugation. Far from compensating for the lost nuance, it destroys a vital part of Christopher’s character, losing something which is ever more important. (12), just like (11), is concerned with adjectives of color. Whereas (11) makes no attempt at reintroducing hints to Christopher’s disorder from the source text, (12b) applies the verb nuru and makes the word pink act as an adverb. The Japanese translation is, therefore, more akin to ‘long nails which were painted pink’, rather than ‘long, pink nails’. Whether or not this was intentional to resemble the source text and include the nuance of the relative clause is uncertain, but it nonetheless strays away from the unimaginative example of (11b), which the respondent also wholeheartedly agrees to. The fourth characteristic of ASD seems to be the one most difficult to translate and even if Japanese allows for some limited options, the translator more often than not neglected portraying this trait of ASD. 7.5 Final Conclusive Remarks For trait one, the Japanese iteration of Christopher sometimes overuses the personal deixis, sometimes abandons it, and sometimes compensates for its absence through other grammatical constructions like dashite yari. For trait two, the structure of speech is directly translated, thus retaining Christopher’s lexical issues. Furthermore, grammatical structures in the form of role language are used as supplement rather than replacement, creating redundancy but also emphasizing the rigidness of the text. For trait three, a reoccurring pattern of reiteration is noticed, albeit with a possible misapplication of case particles. The inclusion of a repeated naze 25 ka to iu to instead of the more commonly used kara or node could be interpreted as an attempt to use Japanese structures for emphasized effect. A pattern is thus visible between trait one, two and three: direct translation of phraseology is always present in tandem with structures unique to the Japanese language. Dashite yari appears alongside repetition of personal pronouns, role language, which does not necessarily represent mechanical speech on its own, is combined with speaker and speech verb, and repetition of naze ka to iu to frequently accompanies sentences of reiteration. The question is not, therefore, whether or not phraseology is directly translated or if Japanese grammatical structures are utilized to fulfill a similar role, because both methods of translation coexist in the same passages. For trait four, even though The Theory of Natural Equivalence demonstrated by Pym (2010) interprets every concept fathomable by the human brain to be omnipresent in any given culture (Pym, 2010, p. 6-8), no attempt is made to portray the need for order and clarity with Japanese terminology, with the limited exceptions of shindeshimatta in (10) and the adverbialization of pinku in (12). Nevertheless, as the remainder of the novel goes to great lengths to faithfully portray Christopher’s disorder, even favoring it over the likes of readability, the purpose of the translated work is deemed to be no different from its source text, despite the fourth trait’s lack of diversity. Briefly reintroducing the Skopos Theory of Reiss and Vermer (2014), it states that every written text is contoured by the intentions of its respective author (Reiss & Vermeer, 2014, p. 85, 90-92), but as discovered through the research in question, Fusa Obi’s translation remains consistent with the purpose of the original writing, thereby painting an authentic picture of ASD for Japanese readers. Individualism and oddities might be shunned by the Japanese public as illustrated by Someki et al. (2018) and their comparative analysis (Someki et al., 2018, p. 91-93), but novels like The Curious Incident, if translated with care for their original intent, can assist in altering the status quo. To end this essay, readers and academics are beseeched to carry on where this research left of. Due to a limitation on both time and page numbers, all topics could not be covered in depth, many were left unexplored, and some ideas were cut completely, like evidentiality and hearsay. 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