Master’s degree project in Knowledge-Based Entrepreneurship Next-gen Textile Materials in Fashion A qualitative study examining challenges and opportunities of fashion entrepreneurs using next-gen textile materials Simon Zieker Graduate School Master of Science in Knowledge-Based Entrepreneurship Supervisor: Ethan Gifford Summer 2024 Abstract The fashion industry's miseries concern environmental as well as social injustices harm- ing the planet and its inhabitants. The system's unsustainable practices have made it a significant contributor to climate change, with material production being by far the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions across the nine stages of the fashion lifecycle. Fortu- nately, there is potential for innovation in this particular segment with the usage and de- velopment of next-gen textile materials which are characterized by being more sustaina- ble and predominantly animal-free compared to those materials in current usage. Espe- cially fashion entrepreneurs pushing for an industry-wide adoption of these materials with their products. However, attempts to scale are encountering challenges. Through a quali- tative research approach following a multiply-chase study research design, this thesis sets out to understand why fashion entrepreneurs using next-gen textile materials fail to grow their ventures to support a much-needed industry-wide adoption of next-gen textile ma- terials. Through a sustainability transition perspective on the fashion industry, the usage of those materials can be defined as a part of sustainable fashion. To address the research question, six semi-structured qualitative interviews with fashion entrepreneurs using next-gen textile materials were conducted. The result found eight areas in which those entrepreneurs face growth challenges. Based on an exploration of those challenges, areas of opportunities with high practical relevance have been developed. Together with the found challenges, they are intended to support next-gen textile fashion entrepreneurs to increase their venture's growth potential and survival chances. Keywords: next-gen textile materials, fashion, sustainable fashion entrepreneurship, ven- ture growth, sustainability transition Acknowledgments Without the support and help of certain people, this thesis wouldn’t be what it is today. First of all, I want to thank my supervisor, Ethan Gifford, as well as Erik Gustafsson from the Unit for Innovation and Entrepreneurship, for their support and input to bring the thesis on the right track. I want to express my sincere gratitude to the Sten A. Olsson Foundation for Research and Culture for supporting me with the scholarship in the area of Innovation and Entrepre- neurship. Without this generous donation, it would not have been possible for me to stay and conduct this study in Paris. Thank you for this chance and experience. The research wouldn’t have been realized without all the entrepreneurs who gave me the opportunity for an interview. Thank you. To my friends and family, thank you for understanding when I wasn’t able to participate in activities during this period. Paris, 31.05.2024 Simon Zieker Table Of Contents Abstract .................................................................................................................... 2 Acknowledgments .................................................................................................... 3 Table Of Contents .................................................................................................... 4 List Of Figures ......................................................................................................... 6 List Of Tables ........................................................................................................... 7 1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 8 1.1 Background: A Short History Of The Fashion Industry .............................. 10 1.2 Limitations .................................................................................................... 11 1.3 Disposition .................................................................................................... 12 2 Literature Review ....................................................................................... 13 2.1 Theoretical Framework: A Sustainability Transition Perspective Of The Fashion Industry ........................................................................................... 13 2.2 Sustainability And Fashion .......................................................................... 15 2.2.1 Sustainable Development In The Fashion Industry ...................................... 15 2.3 Textile Materials ........................................................................................... 16 2.3.1 Animal-based Materials ................................................................................ 16 2.3.2 Synthetic Materials ....................................................................................... 18 2.3.3 Next-gen Materials ....................................................................................... 18 2.4 Fashion Entrepreneurship ............................................................................. 20 2.4.1 Sustainable Fashion Entrepreneurship ......................................................... 22 2.4.2 Growth Challenges Of Sustainable Fashion Entrepreneurs ......................... 22 3 Methodology ................................................................................................ 26 3.1 Research Strategy ......................................................................................... 26 3.2 Research Design ........................................................................................... 26 3.3 Research Method .......................................................................................... 27 3.3.1 Secondary Data Collection ........................................................................... 27 3.3.2 Primary Data Collection ............................................................................... 27 3.4 Data Analysis ............................................................................................... 31 3.4.1 Category Development ................................................................................. 31 3.4.2 Qualitative Content Analysis ........................................................................ 32 4 Results .......................................................................................................... 33 4.1 Customer Communication (B2C) As An Area Of Challenges ..................... 36 4.2 Manufacturing As An Area Of Challenges .................................................. 36 4.3 Available Resources As An Area Of Challenges ......................................... 37 4.4 Expenses As An Area Of Challenges ........................................................... 37 4.5 Customer Acquisition (B2C/B2B) As An Area Of Challenges ................... 38 4.6 Materials Sourcing As An Area Of Challenges ........................................... 39 4.7 Pricing As An Area Of Challenges .............................................................. 39 4.8 Fashion System As An Area Of Challenges ................................................ 39 5 Challenges And Opportunities For Fashion Entrepreneurs Using Next- gen Textile Materials .................................................................................. 40 6 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 43 Appendix A: Interview Guideline ........................................................................ 44 References ............................................................................................................... 45 List Of Figures Figure 1: A multi-level perspective framework to analyze sustainability transition dynamics (Buchel et al. 2022: 233) ............................................................. 14 List Of Tables Table 1: Sample including key characteristics of entrepreneurial ventures ........... 29 Table 2: Transcription rules (Hepburn, Bolden 2017: 2-22; Fuß, Karbach 2019: 39- 100) .............................................................................................................. 31 Table 3: Frequency of challenges reported ............................................................. 33 Table 4: Link between areas of challenges and areas of opportunities ................... 42 1 Introduction “What you wear is how you present yourself to the world, espe- cially today when human contacts go so fast. Fashion is instant language.” - Miuccia Prada Fashion lovers will never get tired of emphasizing the power of fashion. However, the fashion industry faces considerable problems. Its miseries not only concern environmen- tal but also social injustices. Health issues caused by poor working conditions, child labor, and low salaries are among the main social issues. In addition, high water use, water pollution, and the extensive use of chemicals and pesticides across the supply chain are key problems harming the planet (Pedersen, Gwozdz, Hvass 2018: 4-17). This has led the industry to become one of the main significant contributors to climate change. A study by McKinsey & Company in collaboration with Global Fashion Agenda, a non-profit organization representing one of the foremost thought leadership and advocacy forums on sustainability in fashion, shows that the global fashion industry was responsible for around 2.1 billion tonnes of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in 2018. This equals 4% of the global total emissions or the combined emissions of France, Germany, and the United Kingdom annually (Arici et al. 2020). The European Parliament and the World Economic Forum even refer to an estimation of emissions produced by the fashion industry in 2020 which equals 10% of the global total (European Parliament 2020; McFall-Johnsen 2020). As a result, the public perception of climate change drives shifting consumer preferences toward sustainability when choosing brands. In Addition, the European Union will enact bold regulations with the first to take effect in 2024 (Amed et al. 2022: 57- 63; Amed et al. 2023: 90-94). Under the umbrella of ‘Strategy for sustainable and circular textiles’, the EU is aiming to change the way textiles are being produced and consumed targeting the entire lifecycle of textile products. Next to fashion, this will also impact other indus- tries that utilize textiles for their products (European Commission n.d.). In March 2024, France became the first country to approve a bill targeting ultra-fast fashion products. The bill includes prohibiting advertising for such products as well as penalties of up to 10 euros per individual item (Chappron, Spencer 2024). Consequently, reducing the harmful impact on the planet and its inhabitants and shifting from an unsustainable towards a sustainable system became a main target for the entire fashion industry. However, such a paradigm shift requires an enormous amount of investment and resource allocation to change the way the industry is operating today. A closer examination of the distribution of greenhouse gas emissions along the product lifecycle reveals that ‘material production’ is by far the largest contributor to GHG emis- sions across the nine stages of the fashion (apparel, accessories, and footwear) lifecycle with 38%, followed by ‘product use’ (20%) and ‘wet processes’ (15%), according to McKinsey & Company and Global Fashion Agenda (Arici et al. 2020). Thankfully, this area in particular holds room for innovation. Multiple actors are working on so-called ‘next-gen textile materials’, which are generally more sustainable and predominantly animal-free compared to synthetic or animal-based materials that are in current usage. Through biomimicry approaches (mimicking systems, models, or elements from nature), next-gen materials replicate the performance and aesthetics of conventional animal-based materials such as leather, silk, fur, down, wool, and exotic skins (Material Innovation Initiative 2023, p.4). The urge for change in combination with now fast-maturing tech- nology after years of research creates momentum for innovators whether that be next-gen textile material manufacturers or new fashion brands using next-gen textile materials for their products (Deeley 2022: 2-6). However, attempts to scale next-gen material concepts have struggled (Pucker 2023). Incumbents to the likes of big fashion houses such as Gucci or Stella McCartney have only tried their hand at it, with one or two collections using next-gen materials. Moreover, emerging fashion brands that utilize these materials are facing challenges in achieving growth (Thomas 2022). Consequently, the primary emphasis of this research is on investigating the reasons that hinder the scaling efforts of innovators, intending to support an industry-wide adoption of next-gen textile materials. Drawing on the academic context of this master's thesis project, the subjects of interest are fashion entrepreneurs who use these textile materials to create products and their barriers to growth. However, existing academic literature does not provide an overview of growth challenges faced by those entrepreneurs. Gaining such insights would drive fashion entrepreneurship using next-gen textile materials and sup- port the industry-wide adoption of those textiles, while simultaneously enriching the ex- isting but limited body of fashion entrepreneurship knowledge and highlight new research opportunities in this relevant field. Recognizing the obstacles to growth for entrepreneur- ial ventures is crucial as, even with their relatively limited impact, these brands have in- spired and potentially pressured many incumbents in the fashion industry to prioritize ecological, social, and ethical considerations and efforts (Greening, Hockerts, Wüstenha- gen 2018). Consequently, this thesis aims to explore the growth challenges encountered by fashion entrepreneurs using next-gen textile materials to create products. Examining these challenges in relation to opportunity identification is the second objective. Engaging with those opportunities can help increase the survival chances and growth potential of next-gen textile fashion entrepreneurs and their ventures. The research question “What are growth challenges and opportunities for fashion en- trepreneurs using next-gen textile materials?” will guide this master’s thesis project. The study views growth in terms of revenues or employee numbers, as those factors serve crucial for survival and the ability to compete with larger incumbents, according to re- search (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 2). As theoretical foundation, the thesis takes a sustainability transition perspective on the fashion industry to define and categorize next-gen textile materials as part of the sustain- able fashion movement (Buchel et al. 2022). To address this research question six semi- structured qualitative interviews with entrepreneurs using next-gen textile materials were conducted following a multiply-chase study research design. 1.1 Background: A Short History Of The Fashion Industry This chapter briefly explores the history of the fashion industry to provide context towards understanding the environment in which fashion entrepreneurs using next-gen textile ma- terials are operating. Further context is being provided to understand how the industry has grown into the unsustainable system it is today, including the historical development towards fast fashion and recently ultra-fast fashion, which ultimately led to the emergence of sustainable fashion as a countermovement. Modern fashion can be traced back to 1850. During this time, the manufacturing of cloth- ing underwent a significant transformation due to mechanical production including the use of sewing machines and power looms. Fashion Press benefited from technological advancements in print, fostering a growing demand. In addition, the establishment of de- signers as the core of stylistic change contributed to building the foundation of the modern fashion industry (Cole & Deihl 2015: 10). Another important milestone leading to present conditions was the adoption of mass pro- duction following the principles of Henry Ford in the 1960s. The emergence of big retail- ers pushed fashion brands towards standardized production and larger factories. Before, producing garments was a craftmanship and sold in small retail stores. During this period, branding as a way to differentiate oneself from competitors became more widespread. This shift is also linked to an increased interconnection with other areas of pop culture, in particular pop music which gained enormous popularity, especially among the youth. This linkage results in an increased focus on young wealthy consumers leading to a more diversified market (Haug 2007: 27). Moreover, the first signs of what will become later known as ‘fast fashion’ could be observed as designers and brands actively shift toward garments that where not designed or created to last, contrary to the times before, to appeal to the new young and wealthy clientele (Cole & Deihl 2015: 267). Strategic brand management as it is known today, including showing logos and brand names on the clothes themselves and positioning brands as a lifestyle concept clearly took off during the 1980s. Fashion brands took inspiration from sportswear brands, which rec- orded skyrocketing sales due to branding. The separation between fashion and sportswear brands became blurry and even traditional fashion houses, like Gucci and Prada devel- oped their own sportswear lines (Haug 2007: 27). The 1980s are in fact the time were the fashion industry as it is known today came into form. In addition to the implementation of strategic brand management, outsourcing production to low-cost countries resulted in higher quantities that were sold at a lower price, opening up the industry to the majority of society (Gustafsson 2019: 17). In the 1990s, the term fast fashion or throwaway fashion appeared for the first time. It describes low-quality and cheap-produced clothes (Gustafsson 2019: 19). Changing cus- tomer expectations along with the internal reorganization of the fashion industry replaced the former model, in which the couture houses established the trends and the rest of the industry followed. New emerging ‘high street wear’ fashion brands began using market- ing techniques similar to traditional couture houses. As a result, mass-produced clothes were sold under the label ‘high fashion’ or ‘designer’ (Haug 2007: 28). Additionally, improvements in supply chain and production made it possible for other brands to simply copy new trends shown by traditional fashion houses and offer these new trends quickly within their stores (Gustafsson 2019: 19). This led to the emergence of fast fashion brands such as H&M and Zara. They are characterized by offering new collections regularly following new trends, due to short production cycles (Georgsson & Johansson 2020: 7). This model has created and continues to create an ever-increasing demand for new trends, styles, and therefore new clothes. Major fashion houses deliver, at current, 5-6 collec- tions, indeed a drastic increase from 2 back in the days, however, fast fashion brands release a new collection almost weekly (Gustafsson 2019: 19). According to McKinsey & Company, clothing production has doubled from 2000 to 2014 and the number of clothes bought per person has increased around 60 percent. In part, fast fashion must be held accountable for that (McKinsey & Company 2023). In recent years, the emergence of ultra-fast fashion has significantly increased this num- ber. As the name suggests, this “spin-off” shares similar characteristics to fast fashion but operates on an even more extreme level. With leading players such as Boohoo, Shein, and Temu bring products from design to sale in just a few days (Camargo, Pereira, Scarpin 2020: 538). They rely heavily on digital technology through utilizing their apps to collect big data on consumer behavior which enables personalized shopping experiences. They further draw strongly on the use of social media and influencers (Monroe, 2021). Thus, detailing a system that creates more waste and harms more people. According to a 2023 report by the U.S. Congress, Shein and Temu together send almost 600,000 packages to the United States every day. Cargo Facts Consulting reports that this equals around 4,000 tonnes a day for Temu and around 5,000 tonnes for Shein (Barrington, Hall, McLymore 2024). Concerning the social issues that come with ultra-fast fashion, an article from 2022 by the Guardian reports: “some workers at factories supplying Shein reported working more than 75 hours a week. In one of them, workers got one day off a month.” (Mahmood 2022). The industry's transformation towards mass production including the rise of fast fashion and ultra-fast fashion brands has led to a significant impact on the planet and its inhabit- ants, as described in the introduction (Pedersen, Gwozdz, Hvass 2018; Buchel et al. 2022; Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022). In addition, especially fast fashion and ultra-fast fashion consumers reacting to the overconsumption and the low-priced cheap quality gar- ments they are buying. Each year for every five garments produced the equivalent of three end up in landfill, according to McKinsey & Company (2023). 1.2 Limitations This master thesis project acknowledges limitations in several ways. First, the selection of interview partners holds limitations. Only fashion entrepreneurs who sell products ac- cording to a definition provided by the British Fashion Council and Oxford Economics (chapter 3.3.2.1), who use next-gen textile materials following the definition provided by Material Innovation Initiative (chapter 2.3.3), and whose ventures can be considered a startup or a micro enterprise according to the European Startup Network and the European Commission (chapter 3.3.2.1) were taken into account. Moreover, interviewees were chosen to generate similar results to achieve strong findings following the replication logic according to Yin (2003) (chapter 3.2). Second, this study recognizes that the usage of different next-gen textile materials might come with different challenges. This potentially also depends on the type of end product. The chosen interview partners use various next-gen textile materials, in which to produce different products. However, there are overlaps. In this regard, when compiling the sam- ple, the aim was to create it as diverse as possible in terms of end product and next-gen textile materials used, to have general results. The accessibility of potential interview partners represented a constraint in this regard. Getting a response from potential inter- view partners or agreeing on a date and time for an interview was one of the main chal- lenges while conducting this study. In this regard, the project acknowledges the relatively small sample. Third, due to the qualitative nature of this study, the chosen sample is not representative of the broader population. Therefore, external validity and generalizability of the results are not applicable. However, this is predominantly not the goal of qualitative studies like it is for most quantitative studies (Bell, Bryman & Harley 2019: 64-65). Those limitations must be taken into account when looking at or building on the results. 1.3 Disposition Chapter 2 lays out the literature review including the theoretical foundation, and a brief discussion of sustainability, and textile materials. Moreover, fashion entrepreneurship and challenges of sustainable fashion entrepreneurs as the basis for developing the interview guideline are being explored. In chapter 3 the methodology i.e. the research strategy, de- sign, and method as well as the secondary and primary data collection and the data anal- ysis are described and reflected upon. Chapter 4 presents the results of the analysis of the interviews. In chapter 5, the results are further analyzed to identify areas of opportunities and answer the research question. Chapter 6 presents the conclusion including an outlook for further research. 2 Literature Review First, the theoretical framework is laid out. This thesis utilizes a sustainability transition perspective of the fashion industry based on Buchel et al. (2022) to define and categorize next-gen textile materials as part of the sustainable fashion movement. Following, textile materials, including next-gen textile materials, are being categorized through definitions by Material Innovation Initiative (2023), a think tank focusing on environmentally pref- erable and animal-free materials. This includes a reflection on currently used materials and an assessment of their sustainability performance which is critical to understanding the importance of an industry-wide adoption of next-gen textile materials. Thereafter, the concept of sustainability is defined by what it means in the context of the fashion industry. In addition, the emergence of sustainable fashion, which includes the use of next-gen textile materials, is described. The last part of this chapter identifies research concerning fashion entrepreneurship and sustainable fashion entrepreneurship and explores literature concerning (growth) chal- lenges of sustainable fashion entrepreneurship as entrepreneurs using next-gen textile ma- terials haven’t been the focus of studies so far. 2.1 Theoretical Framework: A Sustainability Transition Perspective Of The Fashion Industry Drawing on Buchel et al. (2022), this thesis takes a sustainability transition perspective on the fashion industry to define and categorize next-gen textile materials as part of the sustainable fashion movement. Sustainability transitions research emerged in an effort to understand societal transitions and identify ways to achieve sustainability (Loorbach, Frantzeskaki, Avelino 2017; Grin, Rotmans, Schot 2010). At the core of this perspective lies the assumption that grand so- cietal challenges, such as climate change, are the result of how systems are structured. Systems referring, in this case, to structured networks of institutions, practices, and rela- tionships that shape societal functions and processes (Schuitmaker 2012: 1024-1028). To tackle these challenges, a significant system restructuring is needed, which could slowly lead to a more sustainable system. Such a sustainability transition is characterized by its complexity, involving long-term and unpredictable processes that include multiple di- mensions and a variety of actors with different values and perspectives (Köhler et al. 2019). Buchel et al. (2022) utilize a multi-level perspective framework (Figure 1) to understand and analyze sustainability transition dynamics in the fashion industry. This framework differentiates between three different layers of practices and processes. The first layer, ‘regime’ refers to the dominant way of thinking as well as the norms and rules of the system. It further describes the infrastructures and institutions that shape the system’s overall structure. ‘niches’ are areas outside the regime that propose alternative methods of thinking, governing, and shaping of the prevailing system. Some of these niches have the potential to grow and become as important (or more important) as the system. This provides them with the possibility of overthrowing the current (unsustainable) system. However, not all niches have this potential and with every attempt to overthrow the sys- tem comes the risk of being destroyed or having to adapt to it (232-233). The final layer, ‘landscape dynamics’, describes broad societal trends like economic crises, that have an impact on the entire system (Geels and Schot 2007; Loorbach and Lijnis Huffenreuter 2013). These dynamics affect the stability of the entire system and therefore the structures that support both regime and niche practices. Consequently, they can provoke the recon- figuration and transformation of processes (Geels, 2011). Figure 1: A multi-level perspective framework to analyze sustainability transition dy- namics (Buchel et al. 2022: 233) Through this multi-level perspective on the sustainability transition of the fashion indus- try, Buchel et al. 2022 identify four emerging fashion niches that aim to challenge the fashion regime's prevailing unsustainable practices. Their study is composed of three parts, a desk research and analysis followed by a stakeholder reflection and validation through interviews, and a stakeholder co-creation process in the form of workshops (233- 235). The authors categorize niches as “alternative practices compared to the dominant practices” (Buchel et al. 2022: 236). The identified niches are technology and fibers; busi- ness models; value-chain models and partnerships; and consumer awareness. The tech- nology and fibers niche has emerged to tackle the fashion industry’s unsustainable use of resources and virgin materials. Startups and designers that use or produce next-gen tex- tiles made from various alternative materials such as fruits or mushrooms are one aspect of this niche. This is intertwined with attempts to create textile materials through recy- cling and upcycling processes (Buchel et al. 2022: 236). Through this sustainability transition perspective on the fashion industry, using (and pro- ducing) next-gen textile materials can be categorized as an emerging fashion niche or as part of an emerging fashion niche (technology and fibers) (Buchel et al. 2022: 235-236). The thesis at hand builds on this perspective and categorization. Chapter 2.3 explains in more detail the subject of next-gen textile materials using a definition by Material Inno- vation Initiative (2023). 2.2 Sustainability And Fashion A common problem when assessing the sustainability performance of an industry or sec- tor is that there is no general global definition of the concept of sustainability. The United Nations Brundtland Commission defines sustainability in their 1987 Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development as “meeting the needs of the present with- out compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (United Na- tions Brundtland Commission 1987). In 2015, the UN defined 17 Sustainable Develop- ment Goals (SDGs) to achieve a more sustainable future for every human being. They address the biggest and most present global challenges the world is facing, including pov- erty, inequality, climate change, and peace. Building on the 1987 definition, the SDGs are the most recent and relevant definition of the concept of sustainability (United Nations 2015). The United Nations also set up an Alliance For Sustainable Fashion which is responsible for defining sustainability in the context of the fashion industry. According to them, all actions coordinated by the fashion industry contributing to the 17 Sustainable Develop- ment Goals are sustainable actions. This thesis builds upon this and uses this definition when referring to sustainability or sustainable development in regards to the fashion in- dustry. 2.2.1 Sustainable Development In The Fashion Industry The rise of fast fashion as described in chapter 1.1 and the growing awareness of the fashion industry's significant contribution to climate change fostered a countertrend in adopting sustainable fashion concepts (Pedersen, Gwozdz, Hvass 2018: 4-17). The phe- nomenon originally emerged in the 1960s when consumers first noticed the harmful ef- fects on the environment caused by the sector. During the 1980s and 1990s, ecological and ethical fashion began to rise characterized by anti-fur campaigns (Alvarez-Risco et al. 2023: 89). As mentioned, the industry's miseries harm the plant and its inhabitants (Pedersen, Gwozdz, Hvass 2018: 4-17). Consequently, various business models and concepts tack- ling those issues arose, with the main being eco-fashion, slow fashion, green fashion, and ethical fashion. Sustainable fashion represents a concept of its own, despite common us- age as an umbrella term for the mentioned approaches (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 3). Hofmann, Jacob, and Pizzingrilli (2022) build on this perspective and usage as an umbrella term and define sustainable fashion as the following: “the design, production and distribution of [clothing] fashion when, in the different stages of the value chain, the involved actors subordinate the generation of profits to the goals of conserving natural resources and achieving social justice” (3). The entire movement of sustainable fashion relies heavily on entrepreneurs. Primarily motivated by personal views and values, these individuals aim to provide a fast fashion alternative (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022; Brail, Hunt, Leslie 2014; Brydges, La- vanga, van Gunten 2014). In the same way, consumers' perceptions of social and envi- ronmental issues related to fashion have improved (Alvarez-Risco et al. 2023: 92). In the last years buying second-hand clothing has gained increasing popularity for example, with avoiding waste intertwined with environmental concerns laying among the main motivators (Bunea et al. 2023: 1065). 2.3 Textile Materials Drawing on chapter 2.1 and 2.2.1, using alternative next-gen textile materials that have a lower impact on the environment and its inhabitants is one approach that is being explored by sustainable fashion entrepreneurs (Alvarez-Risco et al. 2023: 94-99; Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 4). Therefore, this chapter intends to categorize textile materials to de- fine what can be considered next-gen textile materials. Moreover, the sustainability per- formance is being assessed in relation to materials that are in current usage. This is crucial to understanding the importance of a next-gen textile material adoption as an emerging niche to tackle to the current unsustainable fashion system. According to Material Innovation Initiative (2023), textile materials can be divided into three different categories (4). 2.3.1 Animal-based Materials ‘Animal-based’ materials (Incumbents) such as leather, silk, wool, fur, down, or exotic skins (python, crocodile, etc.) are the first category. For centuries, they have been used by humanity. However, the usage comes with ethical concerns regarding animal welfare and sustainability-related challenges harming the environment and contributing to climate change (Material Innovation Initiative 2023: 4). According to mistra future fashion (2019), a cross-disciplinary research program aiming to implement circular economy-re- lated measures in the fashion industry from 2011-2019, wool from sheep is the animal fiber produced in the largest volume. It accounts for 1.7 to 36.2 kg CO2 per kg fibers (Johansson, Roos, Sandin 2019: 28-29). To compare, one person living in one of the EU member states accounts on average for 6.25 tonnes or 6250 kg of CO2 emissions annually (2021), or around 17,12 kg per day (EDGAR 2022). Or to make it more visual, burning 1L of gasoline produces approximately 2.3 kg of CO2 (Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources of Canada, 2014), equating to driving around 5,5 miles or 8,8 kilometers with an average passenger vehicle in America (NSCEP 2014). In general, wool is comparatively climate intensive as sheep are ruminants that emit me- thane. Those emissions are being created due to enteric fermentation. A term for describ- ing the process when ruminant animals pass gas (Carter et al. 2022: 4-10). Around 75% of the climate impact of wool can be traced back to methane emissions. The variation in water use/depletion reaches from 37 liters of water per kg wool fibers to 1,210 liters of water per kg wool fibers. It must be noted at this point, that the allocation of environmen- tal impact between meat and fiber production has a high influence on the outcome of the environmental impact results of wool. The climate impact of silk on the other hand has been minimally studied. Mistra future fashion was only able to analyze two studies. It accounts for 52.5 to 80.9 kg CO2 per kg fibers. The amount is highly dependent on farm- ing practices. The water use/depletion reaches from 27 to 54 cubic meters of water per kg silk. As only little data exists, the figures referring to silk should be interpreted with care (Johansson, Roos, Sandin 2019: 28-29). Concerning the impact of leather, it is foremost important to understand that leather is not just a by-product of the meat industry, but instead a very valuable co-product. This is a widespread misconception. In 2020, the global leather goods market was valued $394 billion USD. The sale of leather accounts for up to 26% of the earnings of major global slaughterhouses. In the past, individual slaughterhouses reported multi-million-dollar losses and even considered closing their business when not being able to sell the skins. To assess the environmental impact of leather the relationship between meat and leather production must be taken into account as well. Therefore, the climate impact of leather production must be distinguished between carbon and methane emissions as cattle, cows and buffalos are also ruminant animals that pass gas. All are relevant for leather produc- tion (Carter et al. 2022: 4-10). According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the annual GHG emissions from enteric fermentation from animal agriculture, accounted 2.1 billion tonnes CO2-eq1 in 2018. The total impact of animal agriculture in 2018 summed up to 3.5 billion tonnes CO2-eq GHG emissions from all production processes located within the farm (FAO 2018). In comparison, Germany which is by far the largest emitter (21% in 2022) of the European Union (followed by France with 12.0% the same year) accounted for 746 million or 0,746 billion tonnes of GHG emissions in 2022 (Umweltbundesamt 2023; EDGAR 2023). The animals contrib- uting the most were cattle with more than 1.5 billion tonnes CO2-eq, followed by buffalo with 240 million tonnes CO2-eq (FAO 2018). Concerning the impact of carbon emissions through leather production, calculations by Collective Fashion Justice, a nonprofit organ- ization focusing on ethical fashion, are being used. This is part of their ‘Under their skin: Leather’s impact on the plant’ report and based on data by Leather Panel, the global leather forum of the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO). Ac- cording to that, a cow skin leather tote bag accounts for 100.5 kg CO2-eq, a cow skin leather boot accounts for 66 kg CO2-eq, and a cow skin leather shoe accounts for 40.7 kg of CO2-eq. These numbers seem to represent the total amount of emissions during the entire production chain, although the report doesn’t specify this (Carter et al. 2022: 10- 11). In addition to these impacts on the environment, leather production also has an im- pact on the animals itself, in a cruel manner. Before being slaughtered, cattle in the leather supply chains endure a variety of gruesome mutilation procedures without pain relief, upsetting farm treatment, and frequently hazardous transportation (Hakansson et al. 2023: 47-48). The mentioned impact of animal-based materials on the environment, humanity, and animals is not an extensive list, but rather the most important and relevant facts and figures available. 1 CO2-eq refers to carbon dioxide equivalent and is a metric measure used to compare the emissions from various greenhouse gases, such as methane based on their global-warming potential (GWP) (eurostat n.d.). 2.3.2 Synthetic Materials The second category refers to ‘synthetic’ (current-gen) materials. Invented in the 20th century, synthetics or artificial/ chemically produced fibers function as a substitute for animal-based materials due to a significant cost advantage. For instance, wholesale prices for synthetic leather are only one-third of those of animal leather. Most of the synthetics are based on petroleum, such as polyurethane (PU), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and acrylic. PU is being used as an alternative for leather, polyester for silk, and acrylic for wool. However, their current usage in the market goes far beyond substituting animal- based materials. Nowadays garments made from polyester and nylon exceed those made from cotton (Material Innovation Initiative 2023: 4). Polyester is the most widely used synthetic fiber, accounting for over half of all fiber output worldwide (55 million tonnes in 2018). The main application is clothing, where it serves as a thinner and less expensive substitute for cotton (European Environment Agency 2021). However, despite being more environmentally sustainable than animal-based materials, synthetics also come with issues concerning ethics and sustainability (Material Innovation Initiative 2023: 4). Their production, consumption, and waste handling are responsible for generating GHG emis- sions, and the use of non-renewable resources. This contributes significantly to climate change. In addition, microplastics being shed from synthetic fabrics represent a great is- sue. According to a report by the European Environment Agency from 2021, every year between 200 000 and 500 000 tonnes of textile-derived microplastics find their way into the marine environment (European Environment Agency 2021). Based on calculations by Collective Fashion Justice, a synthetic leather tote bag accounts for 14,4 kg CO2-eq, a synthetic leather boot accounts for 9,5 kg CO2-eq, and a synthetic leather shoe accounts for 5,8 kg of CO2-eq. These emissions are significantly lower than the ones for the same products made of cow leather as presented in the previous paragraph. The report however doesn’t specify what kind of synthetic material was being used (Carter et al. 2022: 10- 11). Additionally, one of the reports resulting from mistra future fashion research program provides data concerning the environmental impact of synthetic materials. According to that, 62 liters of water per kg fiber are being used during the production of polyester (Johansson, Roos, Sandin 2019: 36). At this point it has to be noted as well, that the presented collection of data and statistics regarding the impact of synthetic materials on the environment is not exhaustive. 2.3.3 Next-gen Materials The third textile category according to Material Innovation Initiative (2023) is ‘next-gen’ materials. In general, they are more sustainable and predominantly animal-free compared to currently used animal-based or synthetic materials. They function as a direct replace- ment for animal-based, but also for synthetic materials (4). According to Material Inno- vation (2023) Initiative, over 60% of the companies working on creating a next-gen textile material target a substitute for animal leather. This includes next-gen textile manufactur- ers, but also incumbents within various industries (mainly fashion and automotive) de- veloping their own products (4-10). As mentioned, next-gen materials resemble the functionality and appearance of tradi- tional animal-based materials through biomimicry approaches (mimicking systems, mod- els, or elements from nature). Therefore, various processes and technologies are being used to generate those materials (4-10). Material Innovation Initiative (2023) differenti- ates those materials by their main ingredients or input (greater than 50%): plant-derived, mycelium, cultivated animal cells, microbe-derived, recycled material, and blend. Fol- lowing, all categories are described in greater detail (4-10). At this point, it is important to mention that this categorization by Material Innovation Initiative (2023) represents the current state during the research process of the thesis at hand. However, such a categori- zation might be adjusted and refined in the future (4-10). Plant-derived: This category refers to next-gen materials that are based on virgin or waste/byproduct plant matter. Despite not being plants, fungi (the fruiting body, visible at the surface) and algae are included for the sake of simplicity. Mycelium: All next-gen materials that are based on mycelium, the root-like structure of certain fungi species fall into this category. The separation from the plant-derived cate- gory ties back to increased activities and company's working on materials created with mycelium. Cultivated animal cells: Next-gen materials that are created in the laboratory by growing animal cell constructs with the help of engineering techniques. Microbe-derived: This category refers to next-gen materials that are based on proteins and biopolymers that are created through cellular engineering approaches, for example, cell culture or fermentation processes. Recycled material: All next-gen materials that use recycled plastic or other recycled tex- tile materials as the main input. Blend: The last category acknowledges that some next-gen materials might be based on a mixture of (new) components and don’t fit into any of the other categories. Those ma- terials would fall into this category (Material Innovation Initiative 2023: 6). Because of the novelty and the different variations, it is at this stage difficult to determine the actual sustainable impact of next-generation materials and how that impact differs from synthetic and animal-based materials. Mycelium, for instance, is used to create ar- tificial leather and grows in controlled conditions of warehouses on waste and agricultural byproducts such as sawdust, and carbon dioxide. A full lifecycle assessment including the carbon footprint is not available yet. Since cattle skin is not required to produce this alternative leather, methane emissions due to enteric fermentation are eliminated, and no animals are subject to mistreatment in the process. These are the obvious benefits. How- ever, it still must be assessed whether it is overall more sustainable, including the entirety of its GHG emissions, water consumption, etc. Moreover, some of the current artificial leather materials, depending on the final product, contain plastics such as polyvinyl chlo- ride (PVC) and polyurethane (PU). This increases durability and performance. Without those plastics, mycelium is fully biodegradable (Deeley 2022: 9-11). The manufacturing company Adriano Di Marti released an early life-cycle assessment (“cradle-to-gate” – from extracting the resources to the factory gate, before transporting it to the customer) of their leather alternative Desserto which is based on cactus but con- tains plastic. According to this assessment, the entire cradle-to-gate GHG emissions sum up to 1,39 CO2-eq per square meter. In comparison, one square meter of animal leather sums up to 27,30 CO2-eq and one square meter of polyurethane (PU) sums up to 4,81 CO2-eq (Desserto 2023). Another example is MIRUM, a plant-based and plastic-free material made by the manufacturing company Natural Fiber Welding. The composition of the ingredients makes it fully customizable and therefore can serve as an alternative for various textiles, from leather to carbon fiber. The early life-cycle assessment (cradle- to-gate) found that 1 kg or around 1 square meter (1,2 mm thick) of MIRUM accounts for 0.84 to 2.1 kg CO2-eq GHG emissions (Natural Fiber Welding 2022). For those next-gen textile materials that contain plastics, no data could be found on whether microplastics potentially could be shed into the marine environment, and if so, how much. At this point, it is important to stress that comparisons between life-cycle assessments can be difficult as the scope and the data sets might differ from study to study. In general, it is often difficult to compare the environmental impact as well as the scope of sustainabil- ity between different products. Even though a life-cycle assessment is a common method to do so, it fails to include water usage, water pollution (such as the release of microplas- tics), animal cruelty, and land use, for instance. Moreover, although a life-cycle assess- ment follows ISO standards, the databases that are being used are usually generalized and rely on secondary data that might not accurately represent particular supply chains nor include the same level of details for certain inputs or boundaries of the assessment. 2.4 Fashion Entrepreneurship Up to this date, very little research concerning fashion entrepreneurship has been con- ducted. Various scholars such as Entwistle (2009), Malem (2008), and Gustafsson (2019), highlight this. From what has been done so far, a focus lies on the ability of entrepreneur- ial ventures to survive. Concerning the methodology, foremost exploratory research ap- proaches have been performed in the form of qualitative case studies, as highlighted by Gustafsson (2019: 44). The thesis at hand follows this approach. When looking at literature about fashion entrepreneurship, the broader concept that needs to be illustrated first is entrepreneurship in creative industries, also a field that lacks re- search (Gustafsson 2019: 45). This type of entrepreneurship involves identifying and cap- italizing on opportunities within sectors such as arts, media, design, and of course fashion. It is characterized by using creativity to develop new and innovative products, services, or processes (Howkins 2002: 88-94; Cunningham, Potts 2008). One of the key unique aspects of creative industries is that the actors are not just creating economic but cultural value. In fact, cultural value is created and economically valued. This however varies differently depending on the sector (Entwistle 2002). Potts (2011) emphasizes in this re- gard how entrepreneurship in creative industries plays an important role in shaping cul- tural trends. Literature that focuses on entrepreneurship within creative industries generally shares el- ements with traditional entrepreneurship literature, such as the necessity of identifying a niche or specific market. However, the coexistence of creative identity and the ability to run a business is also highlighted (Gustafsson 2019: 44). When looking at entrepreneur- ship in the fashion industry, Carr and Newell (2014) propose the differentiation between two types of fashion entrepreneurs: the ‘artisan entrepreneur’, “a person with significant technical skills and limited business knowledge who starts a business” (2) and the ‘op- portunistic entrepreneur’, “a person with superior managerial skills and technical knowledge who starts a business” (2). Each type can start a business on their own. This distinction is also being identified in a study concerning the Australian fashion design sector by Choi (2003). The study proposes two types of designers: the ‘artisan designer’ and the ‘business designer’. The latter places great importance on the growth of the busi- ness. Nevertheless, it could not be found that artisan designers are less business-focused. All designers showed great artisan and artistic traits, however, their aptitude for business varied and improved with experience (Choi 2003). Overdiek (2016) explores cases where a fashion designer and a business partner joined forces to create a company. This phe- nomenon is relatively common within the industry, with prominent examples such as Yves Saint Laurent and Pierre Bergé, and Rick Owens and Michelle Lamy. Overdiek (2016) argues that this combination is the best way to build a stable and sustainable busi- ness over time (34-42). Similarly, Malem (2008) also identifies the combination of artistic endeavor and business determination as a strong survival strategy to create a long-lasting fashion brand (398-412). Looking further on what kind of characteristics fashion entrepreneurs possess, Carr and Newell (2014) highlight entrepreneurship as a way to express one’s creativity (2). This is also emphasized by Florida (2004). Overdiek (2016) describes this as the “non-monetary psychological motivation of cultural creators” (29-30). The author bases this on Menger (1999), who argues that selling the artistic creation alongside financial success is not part of the original thought nor initial motivation to create. The main drivers are instead the realization of themselves, creative integrity, and self-expression (541-571). Moreover, Malem (2008) identifies the intrinsic motivation of a creative person rather than pos- sessing a financial motivation (398-399). It can be assumed that this mainly applies to the artisan entrepreneur as described by Carr and Newell (2014) and Choi (2003) or the fash- ion designer (Overdiek 2016) rather than the opportunistic entrepreneur or business part- ner. Carr and Newell (2014) propose 10 common characteristics positively associated with entrepreneurs who are successful in the fashion industry: Time Management, Money Management, Motivation, Competitiveness, Passion, Adaptability, Determination, Ethics and Integrity, Vision, and Autonomy. These can direct entrepreneurs towards building a successful brand (2). Concerning the characteristics of the venture itself, rather than focusing on the founding individual(s), Malem (2008) investigated strategies of London-based fashion brands to survive in the business. Ten survival strategies were identified: 1. understand your business; 2. manage a slow and sustained growth; 3. consultancy from other brands; 4. consolidate contractual agreements; 5. retail and wholesale balance; 6. control every aspect of your business; 7. the importance of building relationships; 8. communicate effectively with chosen markets; 9. the international dimension; and 10. role models (403). 2.4.1 Sustainable Fashion Entrepreneurship As mentioned, sustainable fashion entrepreneurs are mainly driven by their individual values and belief systems. The aim is to offer an alternative option to the capitalistic mass market approach, and especially to fast fashion brands that take particular advantage of this system. Often, these ventures don’t strive blindly for profit maximization, but rather they are founded with the goal to serve nature and society. The new entrants challenge incumbents with new business models, innovative production techniques, and the use of alternative, low-impact next-gen textile materials (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 4). Leather created out of fish skin and fibers out of pineapple leaves are mentioned in this regard (Alvarez-Risco et al. 2023: 95-99). In addition, abandoned or long-forgotten pro- duction techniques and tools, such as handcrafting are being reinterpreted (Hofmann, Ja- cob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 4). Sustainable entrepreneurs are operating in an especially difficult environment. Besides experiencing the known resource constraints of start-ups, they must additionally allocate efforts to achieve social and environmental objectives. Prominent success stories of high- growth startups are Allbrids (USA), Armedangels (Germany), ASKET (Sweden), and Everlane (USA), among others (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 4). Through exploring female entrepreneurship in Africa, Moreno-Gavara and Jiménez- Zarco (2019) highlight sustainability as a main driver for women who seek to create their own ventures (183-194). Dillon (2018) also emphasizes sustainability as one driver for fashion entrepreneurship in the twenty-first century (161). However, the literature review reveals gaps in the academic literature on sustainable fash- ion entrepreneurship and thus holds room for further research. 2.4.2 Growth Challenges Of Sustainable Fashion Entrepreneurs As mentioned, fashion entrepreneurs using next-gen textile materials haven’t been the focus of studies so far, nor the (growth) challenges they are facing. However academic literature covers (growth) challenges of sustainable fashion entrepreneurs to some extent. Consequently, this chapter explores those challenges as the usage of next-gen textile ma- terials can be categorized as part of sustainable fashion. The number of previous studies and literature concerning (growth) challenges faced by sustainable fashion entrepreneurs is limited and diffuse, with only a few researchers explored those challenges through a systematic approach. One major and commonly iden- tified challenge by scholars is the relationship with customers. Due to the variety of sus- tainable fashion concepts (e.g. eco-fashion, green fashion, etc.), entrepreneurs face diffi- culties matching consumer’s expectations with their own visions and strategies. Costs and pricing were identified as another rather common challenge. Sustainable practices often come with higher costs compared to those practices implemented by fashion companies without a focus on sustainability. However, despite often resonating with the company’s efforts, customers are not always willing to pay a premium. Educating consumers in this regard poses a further challenge. Scholars also identify the use of social media networks as communication and marketing channels as hurdles due to the necessary management including monitoring, preparation, and careful communication with customers. Another area that presents challenges for sustainable fashion entrepreneurs is the supply chain. Specifically, finding suppliers who follow the required sustainable principles and setting up a supply chain that does so present key obstacles. Limited resources combined with a lack of knowledge and experience is also identified as a crucial difficulty. Moreover, scholars find ensuring growth to stay competitive without compromising on sustainable goals a major hurdle (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 3-5). In addition to those com- monly identified challenges, Bullinger et al. determine site, machinery, and staff as addi- tional challenges for sustainable fashion entrepreneurs within their single case study (Bullinger, Hansen, Plieth 2012: 128-132). With the goal of creating a first overview of (growth) challenges faced by sustainable fashion entrepreneurs, Hofmann et al. conducted a qualitative study in 2022, based on the research up to this point. The resource-based view of a firm builds the underlying theo- retical foundation. This view identifies internal resources as key determinants of a com- pany's competitive advantage or disadvantage. In addition, Hofmann et al. (2022) use the Business Model Canvas to organize their findings, i.e. managerial recommendations, which have been developed based on the identified challenges. Following an extensive literature review, the researcher’s collected data by conducting 18 semi-structured inter- views with entrepreneurs or executive management personnel of micro- and small-sized sustainable fashion companies. The sample is composed through a convenience sampling method (5-7). Seven main challenges could be identified: “Challenge 1: Designing and implementing attractive yet meaningful campaigns for building and positioning desirable brands is imperative. Challenge 2: Significant marketing efforts are needed to win the hearts and minds of consumers and turn them into customers (i.e., customer acquisition). Challenge 3: Customers are discerning, making it difficult to establish long-term re- lationships. Challenge 4: Resource constraints cause deficiencies and operative frictions across business functions. Challenge 5: The elevated cost structure leads to a competitive disadvantage. Challenge 6: Small quantities and special requirements make sustainable sourcing economically difficult. Challenge 7: Manufacturing is a key element of sustainable business models but is especially difficult to manage.” (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 6-11). Drawing on Hofmann et al. (2022), the challenges 1-3 are related to marketing. They are derived from the interviewee's responses in this regard and can be related to the following parts of the Business Model Canvas: customer segments, customer relationships, chan- nels, revenue streams, key resources, and key activities. Respondents report convincing their customers of the benefits of buying sustainable products despite a higher price point, which is caused by the elevated cost structure, as a major hurdle. Customer acquisition is a generally expressed challenge by interviewees. The higher price point reduces the size of the target group to households that are actually able to afford the products (8). One side of that group is described as “affluent households with an inherent demand and appreci- ation for sustainable fashion” (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 8). However, brand awareness and desirability need to be created while satisfying consumer's demands for transparency regarding production processes and materials used. The second target group is described as “consumers who have been less attracted by sustainable fashion products so far but who exhibit a positive attitude towards sustainable consumption in general and are willing as well as able to ‘upgrade’ to more expensive and sustainable brands” (Hof- mann et al. 2022: 8). In this regard, interviewees mentioned the need to create ‘educa- tional’ messages to emphasize the additional value of sustainable products. The following areas where respondents assume knowledge deficits could be identified: “lack of under- standing of different materials, their properties and impacts at the end of the lifecycle, the true costs and fair prices of products (versus the dominant public perception biased by the low prices of fast fashion retailers), and the benefits of a smaller wardrobe” (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 8-9). The core dilemma of the fashion industry is also high- lighted as a major challenge: the constant cycle of changing trends which leads to an increased demand for novel garments and a short lifespan of products. This system forces brands to present at least two collections every year (Spring/Summer and Autumn/Win- ter) which are ‘new’ and ‘interesting’ (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 9). The challenges 4-5 are related to resource constraints and are associated with the Business Model Canvas segments key resources, key partners, and cost structure, according to Hof- mann et al. (2022). A majority of interviewees highlight financial constraints which comes with no surprise. The pre-financing of collections in combination with the deferred income from distribution partners represents a growth barrier. In addition, the elevated cost structure compared to competitors, primarily incumbents, represents a major chal- lenge (9-10). “Costs of sustainable fashion companies are mainly driven by high quality and sustainable materials, fair labor conditions and in many cases local manufacturing in comparably expensive locations.” (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 10). Regarding the general constraint of having limited resources, concerns about high workloads and a lack of sufficient human resources are being reported. The difficulty of recruiting employees who share the company's sustainable values is also expressed in this regard. The issue is intensified when the venture requires rare expert or craft skills but cannot offer competi- tive compensation. The interviewees also mentioned time pressure in combination with the difficulty of solving urgent problems without support as a further challenge. In rela- tion to sourcing materials and selling products, the high dependency on personal relation- ships was emphasized as a constraint. Finally, creating the internal business infrastructure was mentioned as an ongoing challenge (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 9-10). The challenges 6-7 are related to supply chain management and are associated with the Business Model Canvas segments key activities, key resources, cost structure, and key partners, similar to the challenges 4-5, according to Hofmann et al. (2022). Sustainable sourcing is foremost reported as a major hurdle by interviewees. A main reason for this is the way the sourcing markets are constructed. They are tailored to meet the demands of mass-market participants not new entrants without sufficient financial resources. Therefore, finding affordable and high-quality, sustainable materials at a low order quan- tity is perceived as a challenge. Margin constraints and price limits set by wholesale and retail customers make it often impossible to seek assistance from sourcing agencies. Even though being one of the most important steps of the sustainable value proposition, man- ufacturing is perceived as a huge challenge as generally more production steps depend on handwork. When producing within Europe, higher production costs compared to overseas locations are reported as a hurdle. This is even the case for Eastern and Southeastern European countries where labor costs are not as high as within Middle or Northern Euro- pean countries. These costs further escalate with missing economies of scale and more expensive sustainable materials (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 10-11). As previously stated, using next-gen textile materials can be categorized as sustainable fashion through a multi-level sustainability transition perspective on the fashion industry. Consequently, the laid-out growth challenges of micro- and small-sized sustainable fash- ion companies can be effectively used as a basis to explore the growth challenges of fash- ion entrepreneurs using next-gen textile materials. Thus, the found challenges are being used to guide interviewee's responses and therefore build the basis for the interview guideline of the study at hand. 3 Methodology This chapter provides an overview of the methodology used to conduct this study. The research strategy, design, and method, including both secondary and primary data collec- tion, are explained in depth. Moreover, the last section delves into a comprehensive ex- planation of the data analysis. 3.1 Research Strategy Exploratory studies are needed as new subjects emerge. Even though next-gen textile materials currently experience great momentum, the subject itself is still novel. Moreover, fashion entrepreneurs using these materials haven’t been the focus of studies so far. The field thus lacks pre-existing knowledge, literature, and studies. As a result, a qualitative research strategy was chosen. This exploratory approach is necessary to analyze in depth the individual point of view of the subjects of interest, next-gen textile fashion entrepre- neurs (Bell, Bryman & Harley 2019: 433-436). The goal is to draw generalizable inferences from analyzing these insights, from findings to theory, following an inductive logic of inquiry. However, these generalizable state- ments must be viewed within the context of this study, as external validity or generaliza- bility of the outcome cannot be ensured due to the unique context of this study (Bell, Bryman & Harley 2019: 17-41). As highlighted in chapter 2.4.2, collecting qualitative data (mainly multiple case studies) is a reasonable research strategy used by many scholars exploring growth challenges of sustainable fashion entrepreneurs (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 3-5). This study follows this principle. 3.2 Research Design Bell, Bryman & Harley argue that a cross-sectional research design is better chosen before a multiple-chase study research design when the focus lies on producing general rather than unique, individual findings (2019: 67). As the goal of this study is to draw general- izable inferences from individual cases, choosing a cross-sectional research design might seem like the right option. However, Bell, Bryman & Harley argue further that the con- cern of a cross-sectional research design is to generate statements that apply regardless of time and place (2019: 64). This is and cannot be the goal of this research strategy and design. The objects to be studied are fashion entrepreneurs and their individual experi- ences, with the goal to generate generalizable findings (challenges and opportunities) to foster fashion entrepreneurship using next-gen textile materials and support an industry- wide adoption of those materials. However, those findings can only be applied or built on when considering the context of this study. As mentioned before, external validity or generalizability is in any case predominantly not the goal of qualitative studies like it is for most quantitative studies (Bell, Bryman & Harley 2019: 64-65). Flyvbjerg argues that in-depth cases provide “concrete, context-dependent knowledge” (2006: 223). Providing such knowledge is the goal of this study. Therefore, a multiply-chase study research de- sign has been chosen (Bell, Bryman & Harley 2019: 67). When selecting the cases, the replication logic as proposed by Yin (2003) has been fol- lowed (47). Each case was selected to demonstrate similar results, a “literal replication”. This process is contrary to choosing cases to generate contrasting results, a “theoretical replication” (Yin 2003: 47). The focus lies on what the chosen cases have in common. If similar results (a literal replication) can be demonstrated with the chosen cases, the find- ings can be considered robust and the found challenges can be seen as generalizable in- ferences and applied when considering the context of this study (Yin 2003: 47). 3.3 Research Method To execute this research strategy, semi-structured qualitative interviews with entrepre- neurs using next-gen textile materials were conducted. The identified growth challenges of sustainable fashion entrepreneurs by Hofmann et al. (2022) (chapter 2.4.2) builds the basis for the interview guideline. 3.3.1 Secondary Data Collection In order to get insights into the subject of interest and adequately construct the interview guideline, an extensive literature review has been performed. It was ensured that a signif- icant amount of relevant literature was obtained by using several databases, accessible through the University of Gothenburg and the University of Borås. However, as already mentioned, the academic literature on next-gen textile materials is fairly limited due to the novelty of the subject. Of interest was to collect secondary data regarding the fashion industry, including sus- tainability approaches, next-gen textile materials, and sustainability transition; and fash- ion entrepreneurship including growth challenges of sustainable fashion entrepreneurs. The latter chapter (2.4.2) builds the basis for the interview guideline. Growth challenges faced by fashion entrepreneurs using next-gen textile materials have not yet gained the attention of research projects. 3.3.2 Primary Data Collection Six semi-structured qualitative interviews with fashion entrepreneurs using next-gen tex- tile materials have been conducted to collect the primary data. This style of interview ensures a focus on the research subject and comparability of the data due to the interview guideline. Comparing the given answers is important for the analysis to find similarities or contrasts. This is especially important when performing a multiple case study research, to ensure “cross-case comparability” (Bell, Bryman & Harley 2019: 435- 437). On the other side, it allows the interviewer to be flexible without the need to strictly follow the interview guideline and focus on unexpected but important aspects during the interview (Bell, Bryman & Harley 2019: 435- 437). Paris, France has been chosen as the main geographical area to perform this study for two reasons. On one hand due to the density of entrepreneurial fashion startups and brands using next-gen textile materials. On the other hand, due to the accessibility of interview partners thanks to the researchers’ network. The entrepreneurs were primarily approached via e-mail or text messages, with the re- spective contact information obtained through the mentioned network. Relevant institu- tions such as La Caserne, Europe's largest sustainable fashion accelerator, or Institut Fran- çais de la Mode, one of the most renowned fashion universities of the world have been contacted and/or visited as well. In addition, internet research, involving common plat- forms such as LinkedIn or The Business of Fashion, has been used to identify interview partners. Even though the mentioned network provided the researcher with direct contacts to entrepreneurs and key opinion leaders, getting a response or agreeing on a date to con- duct an interview was one of the main challenges throughout the study. Face-to-face interviews have been the preference to increase personal engagement and create an intimate interview situation where the interviewees feel comfortable talking about the challenges of their journey. This is especially important for the presented re- search strategy to gain a detailed understanding of a person's entrepreneurial journey (Bell, Bryman & Harley 2019: 433-443). 3.3.2.1 Selection Of Interviewees Various criteria were considered when selecting the interview partners. As mentioned, the replication logic according to Yin (2003) has been applied when searching for poten- tial interviewees. The aim is that each interview produces similar results (literal replica- tion) to achieve strong findings (47). However, constraints such as time limitation, acces- sibility of potential interview partners (3.3.2), and the scope of this project had to be taken into account. The final selection includes fashion entrepreneurs who are using next-gen textile materi- als as defined in chapter 2.3.3. Based on a definition provided by the British Fashion Council and Oxford Economics, companies that sell at least one of the following product categories are being considered in this regard as ‘fashion’ companies: Footwear, Men’s (Clothing), Women’s (Clothing), Children’s (Clothing), Cosmetics/Beauty, Jewelry & Watches, Accessories, Luggage & Bags, Hair Products, and Lingerie (British Fashion Council, Oxford Economics 2016: 5). Following the definition provided by the European Startup Network (n.d.), four of the six entrepreneurial ventures can be considered startups (less than five years existence). With the remaining two ventures detailed as micro enterprises according to the staff headcount (less than ten) and having been founded over five years ago following the definition of the European Commission (n.d. a). As mentioned, Paris, France was chosen as the re- search location. Four of the entrepreneurial ventures are based in Paris, one is based in Bordeaux, France, and one in Amsterdam, Netherlands. Two of the entrepreneurs and their brands have been anonymized at their own request. The following table (Table 1) provides an overview of the final sample including key characteristics of the entrepreneurial ventures. Inter- Name Enter- Location Founding Current Next-gen Prod- Price view No. prise Year Number Textile uct(s) Seg- Name of Em- Material ment ployees 1 Entrepre- Enter- Paris 2020 7-10 (in- Cactus Accesso- Affor- neur 1 prise 1 cluding leather; ries, dable Freelanc- Salmon Luggage Luxury ers) skin & Bags leather; up- cycled leather 2 Anita de ReBlend Amster- 2014 5 Mycelium, Clothing Mid- Wit dam upcycled market cotton fi- bers in combina- tion with flachs 3 Julian Virón Paris 2020 8 Apple Foot- Pre- Römer leather; re- wear mium/ cycled rub- Mid- ber, corn market leather; re- cycled cot- ton 4 Romain Maison Paris 2020 2-4 Cactus Luggage Affor- Boubert Maes leather; & Bags dable Mycelium; Luxury plant-based microfiber fabric 5 Entrepre- Enter- Bordeaux 2017 2 Apple + Accesso- Mid- neur 5 prise 5 Grape ries, market leather; Ce- Luggage real fiber & Bags, (corn/wheat Cloth- + recycled ing, synthetic Foot- fiber); re- wear cycled cot- ton and re- cycled bot- tles 6 Achille MoEa Paris 2021 14 Leather Foot- Pre- Gazagnes made for wear mium/ Apple, Mid- Pineapple, market Grapes, Cactus and Corn Table 1: Sample including key characteristics of entrepreneurial ventures 3.3.2.2 Interview Guideline When conducting semi-structured qualitative interviews, the interview guideline is the central element. It is a framework of pre-formulated questions that can be asked in any order to react flexibly to the respective interview situation (Bell, Bryman & Harley 2019: 435). As laid out in chapter 2.4.2, the identified growth challenges of micro- and small-sized sustainable fashion companies by Hofmann et al. in their 2022 study are building the basis for the interview guideline (8-11). These challenges have guided the formulation of the questions and consequently the responses of the interviewees. This process ensures guid- ance in participant’s answers as some challenges might not be as obvious as others. In addition, it guarantees that all known potential challenges will be part of the interview. Yet the first question encourages the interviewees to freely explain experienced chal- lenges to ensure unbiased answers. As suggested by Bell, Bryman & Harley (2019), the questions are formulated in a way that allows respondents to answer them from a subjec- tive point of view, not closing any alternative avenues for answering (440). The interview guideline is attached as Appendix A. 3.3.2.3 Conduction Of The Interviews Five out of six interviews were conducted on a face-to-face basis in Paris, France from March until May 2024. For one interview with a fashion entrepreneur based in Amster- dam, Netherlands, it was not possible to arrange a personal meeting. Instead, the interview was conducted using the video communication software Zoom. All interviews were recorded for the purpose of transcription and to ensure that interview- ee's answers were being captured in their own words. This is essential for the subsequent qualitative content analysis (Bell, Bryman & Harley 2019: 440). At the beginning of every interview, the participants were asked for their consent to rec- ord the session and informed about the importance and usage of the interview in accord- ance with the General Data Protection Regulation as specified by the European Commis- sion. 3.3.2.4 Transcription To perform the analysis, the data captured in the form of audio recordings must be tran- scribed. The written form allows for performing a content analysis. Transcription rules were defined to ensure that the transcripts were created in a standardized manner. As the focus of the following qualitative content analysis remains on the spoken word, rather than non-verbal aspects, the standard orthographic approach was chosen (Hepburn, Bol- den 2017: 2-11). The following rules according to Hepburn & Bolden (2017), and Fuß & Karbach (2019) were applied for the transcription. uncertain hearing (word) unrecoverable speech ( ) two possible hearings (word1/word2) short pause (.) cut-off sounds Cut a word and continue with another one is marked as “-“. omission “[...]” is used for non-transcribed inter- view sequences. It is applied in case of participant's digression and the content is not relevant for the analysis or for unex- pected interruptions, e.g. due to an unsta- ble internet connection. anonymization Interviews No. 1 and 5 have been fully anonymized. Therefore, all identifying information were replaced with explana- tory paraphrases in brackets, e.g. “{com- pany name}”. Table 2: Transcription rules (Hepburn, Bolden 2017: 2-22; Fuß, Karbach 2019: 39-100) 3.4 Data Analysis The transcribed interviews were analyzed using Philip Mayring's Qualitative Content Analysis. This structured approach makes it possible to compare every interview while analyzing each of them according to the research question. This analysis aims to create an information base extracted from the transcribed material that is relevant for answering the research question. For this purpose, the ‘content structuring’ approach is being ap- plied. Categories are the central tool leading the extraction of the necessary information from the transcribed material. This type of analysis was chosen as it is best suited to reducing complexity when large amounts of text material are available (Mayring 2015: 11-17). 3.4.1 Category Development The categories were developed following the “Deductive category application” approach (Mayring 2000). The interview questions (interview guideline) which have been devel- oped based on Hofmann et al. (2022) represent the theoretically derived aspects on which the categories were formulated. This enables a systematic and structured procedure and ensures that the preconceived challenges are leading the extraction of the text material (Gläser, Laudel 2010: 200-201). The resulting categories: “K1: Customer Communication”, “K2: Customer Acquisition (B2C/B2B)”, “K3: Demanding Customer (B2C/B2B)”, “K4: Long-term Customer Relationship (B2C/B2B)”, “K5: Resource constraints”, “K6: Expenses”, “K7: Material Sourcing”, “K8: Manufacturing”, including their definition, represent the structuring di- mensions and thus the extent of the structuring of this Qualitative Content Analysis (Mayring 2015: 97-99). 3.4.2 Qualitative Content Analysis First, the developed categories were applied to the transcript of interview No. 1 as a test run. The resulting coding agenda includes characteristic text passages as examples, in addition to the definitions. Moreover, categories and their definitions were revised if nec- essary. This specifies the accurate circumstances under which a text part can be coded with a category (Mayring 2015: 97-103). This coding agenda can be considered ‘open’ according to Gläser and Laudel (2010). It describes the possibility of adding information, that is relevant for answering the research question, which does not fit the coding agenda during the main coding process. Thus adapting/ revising the existing categories including definitions, examples, and coding rules. Gläser and Laudel (2010) argue that this increases the efficiency of the analysis compared to traditional qualitative content analysis. However, every time the coding agenda was adopted, the transcribed text which has been worked through until this point, has been revisited with an adjusted agenda (Gläser, Laudel 2010: 201). The test run was followed by the main coding process going through the transcriptions of every interview. The locations of the text parts of every category for each interview were documented in tables. At the same time the coding guide was adapted and refined. This was followed by a second round of working through every interview ensuring that all the locations were correctly noted (Mayring 2015: 103-108). Following, the text parts for each category and interview were summarized and noted in a table. The rules of summarization according to Mayring (2015) have been applied. The identified text parts have been paraphrased for each category and interview. At the same time, the text has been reduced and generalized to achieve the previously defined level of abstraction. Given the large amount of text material, it is possible to bundle several steps of the summarization. During the reduction, the macro-operator’s generalization (Gener- alisation), omission (Auslassen), selection (Selektion), bundling (Bündelung), construc- tion (Konstruktion), and integration (Integration) have been applied. Additional theoreti- cal knowledge was used in unclear cases. After the completion of this process, it was necessary to verify whether the summarized statements still represented the original text passages. All passages had to match their reduced counterpart (69-72). The results are more general and reduced expressions representing what the respective interviewee has stated in the interview. 4 Results Eight areas in which fashion entrepreneurs using next-gen textile materials face growth challenges could be identified as a result of the qualitative content analysis of the inter- views. The areas are listed as follows: Customer Communication (B2C), Manufacturing, Available Resources, Expenses, Customer Acquisition (B2C/B2B), Material Sourcing, Pricing, and Fashion System. ‘Customer Communication (B2C)’, Manufacturing’, ‘Available Resources’, and ‘Ex- penses’ are the dominant, i.e., most frequently mentioned areas in which the respondents face challenges. The second most dominant areas are ‘Customer Acquisition (B2C/B2B)’ and ‘Material Sourcing’. Four respondents reported challenges in those areas. ‘Pricing’ as an area of obstacles was only identified during two interviews while ‘Fashion System’ was only identified during one interview. This additional quantitative treatment of the data allows for evaluating the relative significance of the challenges and identifying the primary barriers. Drawing on Yin (2003) the most common findings i.e. challenges can be considered the most robust. This potentially proving valuable for future research. The following table provides an overview of those frequencies. Challenge Interview No./ Reported as a Challenge (Yes/-) No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 Customer Communication yes yes yes yes yes yes (B2C) Manufacturing yes yes yes yes yes yes Available Resources yes yes yes yes yes yes Expenses yes yes yes yes yes yes Customer Acquisition - yes yes yes yes - (B2C/B2B) Material Sourcing yes yes yes - - yes Pricing - - yes - yes - Fashion System yes - - - - - Table 3: Frequency of challenges reported Most of the identified challenges align with prior research i.e. the study by Hofmann et al. (2022), which builds the basis for this study’s interview guideline. However, the iden- tified areas for the study at hand are broad umbrella terms, which can be rather easily linked to the previously identified challenges of Hofmann et al. (2022). Therefore, a detailed explanation is provided on how the previously discovered growth challenges of sustainable fashion entrepreneurs relate to the growth challenges of fashion entrepreneurs using next-gen textile materials identified in the study at hand. In this regard, the first area ‘Customer Communication (B2C)’, can be related to Chal- lenge 1 by Hofmann et al. (2022), “Designing and implementing attractive yet meaningful campaigns for building and positioning desirable brands is imperative” (9). In both stud- ies, respondents highlight the general difficulty and need to create brand awareness and a desirable brand positioning. Educating customers through marketing activates could also be identified as a shared challenge. Next-gen textile entrepreneurs however put more em- phasis on storytelling as an obstacle in this regard, while sustainable fashion entrepre- neurs point out consumer’s demand for transparency (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 8-9). ‘Customer Acquisition (B2C/B2B)’ can be related to Challenge 2: “Significant mar- keting efforts are needed to win the hearts and minds of consumers and turn them into customers (i.e., customer acquisition)” (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 9). One of the main concerns of interviewees of Hofmann et al.’s (2022) study is to convince customers of the benefits of buying sustainable products despite the higher price point (8). During the analysis of the study at hand, a similar challenge was identified. Respondents pointed out that sustainability, in the sense of using low-impact (next-gen) textile materials and taking into account sustainable manufacturing practices, doesn’t create a desirable brand positioning2 on its own which is able to justify significantly higher prices. However, this was only reported by two interview candidates. Additional similarities in the interview- ee's answers to both studies could not be identified. ‘Available Resources’ can be related to Challenge 4: “Resource constraints cause defi- ciencies and operative frictions across business functions” (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 10). Candidates in both studies highlighted financial resource constraints as a result of the significantly higher cost structure compared to competitors. In addition, the lack of human resources and the difficulties in recruiting employees who share the same (sus- tainable) values could be identified in both studies (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 9-10). In this regard, Hofmann et al. (2022) found that the need for rare expertise or craft skills further complicates the search for staff (9-10). Interview candidates of the study at hand reported constraints since predominantly only interns could be hired. The remaining identified hurdles of both studies differ. The area ‘Expenses’ can be related to Challenge 5, “The elevated cost structure leads to a competitive disadvantage” (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 10). Significantly higher costs than competitors are a main challenge 2 It seems relevant at this point to briefly define brand positioning as well as brand identity and especially the difference between both concepts. Brand identity refers to the unique brand attributes that a company wishes to create or maintain. It is devel- oped internally and includes the vision, the core values, and the fundamental characteristics of the brand that make it recognizable. Brand positioning, on the other hand, refers to the process of how a brand differentiates itself from competitors in the minds of consumers. At its core lies the creation of a unique value proposition and a competitive advantage to set the brand apart from the competition and attract consumers (Kapferer 2008: 172-182). The brand identity is internally focused while the brand positioning is externally focused. To some degree, the identity builds the basis for the positioning (Kapferer 2008: 172-182). for sustainable fashion as well as next-gen textile fashion entrepreneurs. The shared causes are high costs for either next-gen textile or sustainable as well as high-quality materials; high production costs due to local manufacturing; and fair as well as sustaina- ble working conditions (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 9-10). ‘Material Sourcing’ can be related to Challenge 6: “Small quantities and special require- ments make sustainable sourcing economically difficult” (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 11). During both studies finding the right suppliers and sourcing (sustainable) ma- terials could be identified as a main challenge. Criteria such as a low minimum order quantity, high quality (depending on the brand positioning), sustainability, and an afford- able price, limit the number of matching suppliers (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 10-11). Lastly, ‘Manufacturing’ can be related to Challenge 7, “Manufacturing is a key element of sustainable business models but is especially difficult to manage” (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 11). Though manufacturing could be identified as a major issue in both studies, the specific challenges differ to some extent. For fashion entrepreneurs using next-gen textile materials, the primary struggle is that even though those materials resemble by look and feel conventional materials, working with them differs greatly. This limits the number of manufactories to choose from and increases the risk of production failures. When considering the factory's sustainability, material, machinery, and mini- mum order quantity standards, the number decreases even more. Sustainable fashion en- trepreneurs on the other hand report challenges to the likes of a larger dependence on handwork, and elevated production costs (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 11). The identified areas ‘Fashion System’ and ‘Pricing’ could not directly relate to one of the found challenges by Hofmann et al. (2022). Regarding the area ‘Fashion System’ how- ever, Hofmann et al. (2022) state that interviewees reported constraints concerning the way the fashion industry or system is constructed and the obligation to present at least two collections every year (Spring/Summer and Autumn/Winter). However, this is men- tioned in relation to challenges 1-3 (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 9). This is re- ported similarly by one interviewee of the study at hand. The area ‘Pricing’ refers to chal- lenges regarding the pricing strategy. Fashion brands using next-gen textile materials compete with the market and their respective price positioning, not other next-gen or sus- tainable fashion brands. However, customers are not willing to pay significantly more for a ‘sustainable’ product. This is not directly included in the findings of Hofmann et al. (2022). Challenge 3, “Customers are discerning, making it difficult to establish long-term relationships.” (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 9), was not clearly addressed as a dif- ficulty by interviewees of the study at hand. It must be noted that almost all interviewees of the study at hand referred also to macro- economic challenges due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the war in Ukraine (mainly inflation and energy crisis). However, these challenges have not been included in the re- sults as they are specific challenges of this period and cannot be seen as general challenges faced by this type of fashion entrepreneur. Following, the eight areas of growth challenges identified within this study and the spe- cific hurdles are discussed in greater detail: 4.1 Customer Communication (B2C) As An Area Of Challenges As mentioned, every respondent reported hurdles within this field. One aspect is standing out among the multitude of other fashion brands and companies across various commu- nication channels, especially given human and financial resource constraints. In addition, the need to develop a compelling story to create brand awareness and a desirable brand positioning was observed as a challenge. In this regard, three interviewees identify story- telling as a significant difficulty. A fascinating aspect raised by two respondents is that sustainability, in the sense of using low-impact (next-gen) textile materials and taking into account sustainable manufacturing practices, is not sufficient, on its own, in estab- lishing a brand positioning nor solely justifiable of significantly higher price points than direct competitors. A desirable brand or desirable products need to be built on other at- tributes as well. “I think sustainability alone not no because (…) What does it really mean? (…) [Referring to the brand Corail] They work with, they work with fishermen and the Mediterranean Sea and they let them run these like plastic recuperation like. You know, machines like- so basically they're getting all the plastic from the ocean and then they recycle them and then they make recycled sneakers out of it. But, you know, this is also this is sustainability, but it's not only sustainability, because it has to do with your whole- like it's a very tangible I think that's maybe the right word to like and you make sustainability, if you make it really tangible and really people understand that it's just- you know, like you're involved in the whole process like they really getting the plastic out of the ocean and they're really recycling themselves and they make shoes out of that.” (Respondent No.3). Two interviewees further highlight the difficulty of educating customers and conveying information about the use of next-gen textile materials within their marketing activities, both online and offline. Negative comments about veganism and the brand's ethical ap- proach are emphasized as an obstacle by one respondent. Another interviewee mentions the difficulty of finding and choosing the right influencers that align with the brand values and are able to reach the target audience. 4.2 Manufacturing As An Area Of Challenges All interviewees referred to manufacturing as a main area of difficulty. The primary issue is that producing goods with next-gen materials differs greatly from working with current- gen/synthetic, or animal-based materials. “(…) these next-gen materials, even if they re- semble by look the animal leather, for example, actually the physical behavior is totally different. The chemical and physical behavior of it (…) I think so I think these are really the challenges for everyone. (…) Or in design like for example leather it's really good because you can shape it really nicely. These next-gen materials you can shape them as nice or like it [but] the shaping process is different. You need to think of the totally differ- ent process.” (Respondent No.3). Not all factories know how to work with these materials which can cause production failure. This is highlighted by five interviewees. Respondent No. 1 mentions in this regard their R&D process a the beginning of the ven- ture creation: “ (…) we almost worked two years with different factories trying to find the right support and the right reinforcement, the right glue to understand how this material [recycled salmon leather] was suitable for leather goods.”. Respondent No. 6 emphasizes in this regard also the time-intensive and difficult process of developing material in col- laboration with a material supplier. Another difficulty emphasized in three interviews is the fact that production quantities are rather small, particularly during the early stages of the venture creation. This limits the factories to work with. The actual number decreases even more when one considers if the factories meet sustainability, material, and machinery standards, as well as being located in Europe. 4.3 Available Resources As An Area Of Challenges Challenges due to a lack of various resources are emphasized by all respondents. This comes with no surprise as this is one of the main challenges that the majority of startups face at an early stage. The interviewees primarily highlight financial resource constraints resulting from high production costs coupled with low margins. The causes are high man- ufacturing and material costs, high costs due to small production quantities, and the over- all immaturity of the next-gen material space within the fashion industry. Compared to incumbents and fashion companies using animal-based or current-gen materials, this re- sults in a reduction of the profit margin which leads to resource shortage in various other areas, predominantly a lack of workforce. Two interviewees highlighted that interns are the ones typically hired, which entails a limited skillset and regular rotation involving new onboardings, interviews, and job postings each time. In addition, two respondents point out the difficulty of finding and hiring staff that share the same values and want to work in a startup environment. However, almost all of the interviewed candidates also emphasized financial constraints as an expected challenge of being an entrepreneur and working within the innovative entrepreneurial sphere. In which additionally bears the result of a high acceptance and a predominantly optimistic view on financial constraints. In this regard, Responded No. 1 pointed out what can be done without having a lot of resources and receiving help from collaborators free of charge due to a pioneer brand positioning: “But I mean we did a lot of things on our own with the constraint of not having enough funding to start with. It never stopped us from achieving and doing great projects. So early on we positioned ourselves to be a top brand and people wanted to collaborate with us.”. Only one interviewee highlighted getting funded as a main obstacle. 4.4 Expenses As An Area Of Challenges All respondents highlighted having high costs as a challenge, particularly when compared to the market or conventional fashion brands. As already mentioned, this is grounded in high material costs (per linear meter), high production costs in Europe, and low unit sales. With worker's rights, fair wages, and compliance with recent environmental sustainability measures further increasing production costs. However, still serves as an important crite- rion for all candidates when choosing their production location. 4.5 Customer Acquisition (B2C/B2B) As An Area Of Challenges Four respondents highlight customer acquisition as a major hurdle, however, the reasons vary to some extent. During two interviews the candidates once more pointed out that sustainability, in the sense of using low-impact materials and taking into account sustain- able manufacturing practices, doesn’t create a desirable brand positioning that is able to justify significantly higher prices. They emphasize that vegans also buy true leather prod- ucts and just a small proportion of consumers buy their products based on the material alone. From their point of view, design, and creativity must be given the focus. One candidate responds that customer acquisition is rather easy in the beginning but chal- lenging later to reach the mass customer segment. Early adopters who are invested in the story and the innovation can be reached much easier at the start than mainstream consum- ers as products are more expensive, and potential customers don’t know how the material will behave. Another interviewee adds in this regard that buying innovation is always a perceived risk for customers. Only one participant mentions the difficulty of competing with fast fashion brands due to high price differences. On the other hand, one of the interviewed entrepreneurs reports that customer acquisition has not been a problem so far and that the brand has not faced difficulties in competing with fast fashion brands as their target audience consists of peo- ple who want to buy vegan shoes rather than fast fashion. Retail (B2B) acquisition is described as an obstacle by one respondent due to small-scale production and when using various unconventional and next-gen materials and fabrics. One participant also mentions the importance of having trained staff to educate customers in retail environments. Three interviewees highlight the hurdle of dealing with more demanding customers with higher expectations because of the higher price point and their high investment in the brand due to being early adopters. However, the remaining interviewed entrepreneurs don’t see their customers as more demanding, and instead argue that their expectations follow the brand’s positioning. As mentioned, if these aspects and challenges have an impact on the ability to establish a long-term customer relationship wasn’t clearly addressed by the respondents. Respondent No. 1 mentions in this regard that establishing a long-term relationship is easier if the brand is positioned as a pioneer. 4.6 Materials Sourcing As An Area Of Challenges Finding the right suppliers and sourcing materials was highlighted by four respondents as a difficulty. The material characteristics and the quality depend on the end product and the brand positioning. Moreover, a shoe has different requirements than a bag or clothes. In addition, material suppliers need to be aligned with sustainable values of the brand. These criteria limit the number of matching suppliers within Europe and creates a hurdle for entrepreneurs. Respondent No. 3 emphasizes in this regard: “(…) if your intention is to really use the sustainable materials, it's quite tough to get those materials. For us, it's also footwear is very technical (...) it's about comfort, durability, resistance all of these things, breathability (…) footwear has a lot like. If it's not resistant enough, it breaks. If it's not breathable you get smelly feet (…)”. However, the remaining respondents report that sourcing has never been an issue for them. 4.7 Pricing As An Area Of Challenges Two respondents highlight difficulties in their pricing strategy. The underlying reason for such being the fact that they are not just competing with other sustainable brands but rather the market and the segment according to their brand positioning. Within that seg- ment, customers only accept higher prices until a certain point. This is intertwined with the brand positioning of the venture. If that positioning or the product itself is not desira- ble for them, customers especially don’t accept higher prices. 4.8 Fashion System As An Area Of Challenges During one interview, the respondent pointed out the difficulty of working on different collections, for different seasons (at least Spring/Summer, Fall/Winter) at the same time every year. “(…) for example, we're preparing spring summer 25 currently. We are in the spring 24 selling season for B2C and we are in the [selling season for] fall winter 24 for B2B currently [the interview was conducted beginning of March 2024]. So always juggling three seasons at the same time.” (Respondent No. 1). However, this challenge is only relevant for fashion brands following the proper calendar of the fashion system. 5 Challenges And Opportunities For Fashion Entrepreneurs Using Next-gen Textile Materials As outlined in Chapter 4, eight areas where fashion entrepreneurs using next-gen textile materials are facing growth challenges have been identified. However, it must be taken into account that certain areas have been mentioned more often, while other areas have been challenging only for a certain number of the interviewed entrepreneurs. Thus, the first part of the research question, “What are growth challenges and oppor- tunities for fashion entrepreneurs using next-gen textile materials?”, can be answered as follows: Customer Communication (B2C), Manufacturing, Available Resources, Ex- penses, Customer Acquisition (B2C/B2B), Material Sourcing, Pricing, and Fashion Sys- tem are areas in which fashion entrepreneurs using next-gen textile materials are facing challenges. When looking in detail at the identified areas and the specific challenges that interviewees are facing, it becomes clear that cost structure, manufacturing, and brand positioning are the main areas of difficulty. These three segments are derived from the eight identified growth challenges. The manufacturing process is a major obstacle due to working with new and unfamiliar materials that involve a different production process. This can lead in some cases to production failures and overall limits the available manufacturers, espe- cially in Europe. When only working with manufacturing companies that are aligned with one’s ethical and sustainable values, the number decreases further and altogether leads to high production costs. In combination with higher prices for next-gen textile materials, and low production volumes, this results in significantly higher costs than conventional brands. Consequently, the sales price increases equally. Thus, these high prices must be justified with a desirable brand positioning. The interviews revealed that these brands are not competing with other sustainable brands, but rather with the market or their mar- ket/price segment corresponding to their brand positioning. According to Mckinsey & Company (2022), the European fashion market can be segmented by price as follows (highest to lowest): High-end, Luxury, Affordable Luxury, Premium, Midmarket, Value, and Discount (Balchandani et al.). Four of the interviewed entrepreneurs positioned their brands in the low-premium and midmarket price segments. Two reported challenges in their pricing strategy as customers in their segments only accept higher prices until a certain point. This results in a significantly lower margin than competitors that don’t use next-gen textile materials for their products. The other two interviewees within the low- premium and midmarket price segments however didn’t address challenges in this regard. The remaining two interviewed entrepreneurs positioned their brands in the affordable luxury price segment. Similarly, they did not mention any problems regarding their pric- ing strategy. They also have lower margins than competitors, however, it is significantly higher than low-premium and midmarket margins. The interviews also presented a case for sustainability in the sense of using low-impact (next-gen) textile materials and taking into account sustainable manufacturing practices, as not enough to create an entire brand positioning around it, nor justifiable of a signifi- cantly higher price point than direct competitors. The brand's desirability needs to be based on other values as well. Hofmann et al. 2022 also identified hurdles in this regard. “One of the interviewees’ main concerns was how their elevated cost structure can be compensated by realizing higher price points in the market and convincing consumers about the benefits of sustainable products” (Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022: 8). A study by Trevenen et al. (2014) found that consumers are more keen to buy products that are made using sustainable practices, but not willing to pay a significantly higher price for it (241-251). This attitude-behavior gap was also identified in a study by Martinez & Wiederhold (2018). Based on these insights, two areas of opportunities for fashion entrepreneurs using next- gen textile materials have been identified: 1. Price positioning: A high-end, luxury, or affordable Luxury price positioning can compensate for the high-cost structure. 2. Branding: Creating a brand positioning that is not built entirely on sustainability as the unique value proposition might be able to justify a higher price point. As shown, these areas of opportunities can be directly linked to the found challenges. Cost structure, manufacturing, and brand positioning have been identified as the main areas of difficulty. Manufacturing is derived from ‘Manufacturing’ and ‘Material Sourc- ing’ as part of the found areas in which fashion entrepreneurs using next-gen textile ma- terials are facing challenges. Cost structure is derived from ‘Expenses’ and ‘Pricing’. Un- deniable, those areas are also related to ‘Manufacturing’ and ‘Material Sourcing’ as ex- plained. Brand positioning is derived from ‘Customer Communication (B2C)’ and ‘Cus- tomer Acquisition (B2C/B2B)’. While ‘Available Resources’ impacts all of those three (cost structure, manufacturing, and brand positioning) or six (Customer Communication (B2C), Expenses, Manufacturing, Customer Acquisition (B2C/B2B), Material Sourcing, Pricing) areas. Finally, cost structure, manufacturing, and brand positioning lead to Price Positioning and Branding as areas of opportunities. The high-cost structure is a result of the high manu- facturing costs. In addition, a brand's price positioning is intertwined with its brand posi- tioning. The following table (Table 4) illustrate this. Areas of challenges Main challenges Areas of Oppor- Areas of Oppor- tunities tunities Manufacturing Manufacturing Material Sourcing Price positioning Branding Expenses Cost structure Pricing Customer Communi- cation (B2C) Brand positioning Customer Acquisi- tion (B2C/B2B) Table 4: Link between areas of challenges and areas of opportunities Engaging with these areas of opportunities when founding a next-gen textile fashion brand can help increase the venture's survival chances and growth potential. Thus, the second part of the research question can be answered: Price positioning and branding are areas that offer opportunities for fashion entrepreneurs using next-gen textile materials and can help increase a brand's survival chances and growth potential. 6 Conclusion This thesis sets out to understand why fashion entrepreneurs using next-gen textile mate- rials fail to grow their ventures to support a much-needed industry-wide adoption of next- gen textile materials. Simultaneously the study enhances the existing but limited literature on fashion entrepreneurship, particularly surrounding sustainable fashion entrepreneur- ship, by adding a first exploratory study examining fashion entrepreneurs using next-gen textile materials. Through a sustainability transition perspective on the fashion industry, the usage of those materials can be defined as a part of sustainable fashion. Understanding sustainable fashion entrepreneurs’ barriers to growth is critical as this can lead to faster growth and higher survival rates. If successful, their societal impact is two- fold. On one side those fashion entrepreneurial ventures have an increasing direct effect on society through their sustainable products and improved production processes. On the other side, their growth and commercial achievements put additional pressure on estab- lished fashion houses to change to a sustainable system (Hockerts, Wüstenhagen 2010; Hofmann, Jacob, Pizzingrilli 2022). Eight areas in which fashion entrepreneurs that use next-gen textile materials face growth challenges were identified. Based on an exploration of those challenges, areas of oppor- tunities with high practical relevance have been developed. Together with the found chal- lenges, they are intended to support those entrepreneurs to increase their brand's survival chances and growth potential. The identified areas of challenges and opportunities highlight several new research pos- sibilities in this very relevant and expanding field. The usage of next-gen textile materials as part of an emerging niche to tackle the fashion industry’s unsustainable use of re- sources and virgin materials holds plenty of room for further studies. This is especially important considering the obstacles to transitioning to sustainable practices in the fashion industry, including failed attempts to scale next-gen textile material concepts. Academics must acknowledge this and act accordingly. When looking at or building on this study’s findings, limitations, and the unique context of this thesis, both its qualitative and explor- atory nature must be taken into account. Appendix A: Interview Guideline Introducing questions: 1. When was the company founded? 2. Did you found the company by yourself? 3. How many people worked in the company when you founded it and how many now? 4. What kind of next-gen textile materials are you using for your products? a. And how do you use them, mixing materials or only one material for one product? Research-related questions: 5. From your perspective, what are the main challenges when growing your business that you have encountered since the founding? 6. Communication with your customers - In what way do you do that? a. And can you think of any difficulties? 7. Customer acquisition – Would you say it is rather easy or hard? a. Why? 8. Would you say that your customers are more demanding (having high standards) compared to customers of fashion brands not using next-gen materials? a. And do you think that this makes establishing long-term relationships harder? 9. Resource constraints, would you describe this as a challenge? a. And would you say that this leads to friction between multiple divisions of the business? 10. Do you have higher costs than brands not using next-gen materials? a. Would you describe this as a difficulty for you? 11. Sourcing and finding the right suppliers – would you say that this process was difficult? a. Why? 12. Would you consider the manufacturing process a challenge? a. Why? 13. Can you think of any other challenges that come to mind when you think about the growth of your brand? References Amed, Imran/ André, Sarah/ Balchandani, Anita/ Berg, Achim/ Crump, Hannah/ Devil- lard, Sandrine/ Grunberg, Joëlle/ Kersnar, Janet/ Rölkens, Felix/ Straub, Michael (2022) The State of Fashion 2023. 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