Luxury, Fashion, and Idols
Applying an extended theory of planned behavior to
examine barriers toward sustainable fashion
consumption in Japan
Master Degree Project in Marketing & Consumption 2023
University of Gothenburg, School of Business, Economics & Law
Graduate School
Authors: Florian Konstantin Gold & Allegra-Scarlett Nefertari Verena Irmgard Marie Terner
Supervisor: Erik Lundberg
Table of Contents
Abstract 3
1. Introduction 4
2. Literature Review & Theoretical Framework 6
2.1 Sustainable Fashion Consumption 6
2.1.1 Barriers to Sustainable Fashion Consumption 6
2.1.2 Barriers to SFC in Japan 7
2.2 Theory of Planned Behavior 8
2.2.1 Attitudes 8
2.2.2 Subjective Norms 10
2.2.3 Perceived Behavior Control 10
2.3 Additions to the TPB 11
2.3.1 Luxury Orientation 12
2.3.2 Fashion Involvement 13
2.3.3 Idol Attachment 13
3. Methodology and Data Collection 14
3.1 Population and Sample 15
3.2 Measurements 15
3.3 Data Collection 18
3.4 Data Quality 19
3.5 Data Analysis 20
4. Results and Analysis 21
4.1 General Results 21
4.2 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) 23
4.3 Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) 26
5. Discussion 28
6. Conclusion 32
6.1 Implications 33
6.2 Limitations and Future Research 34
Acknowledgements 35
Appendix 36
References 37
2
Luxury, Fashion, and Idols
Applying an extended theory of planned behavior to examine
barriers toward sustainable fashion consumption in Japan
Florian Konstantin Gold & Allegra-Scarlett Nefertari Verena Irmgard Marie Terner
Abstract
Purpose: This study aimed to apply an extended theory of planned behavior (TPB) to
sustainable fashion consumption (SFC) in Japan, and test the importance of sociocultural
barriers to purchase intentions.
Methodology: As only a few studies have examined SFC in Japan and have not used the TPB
framework, this study adds to the body of literature, and proposes luxury orientation, fashion
involvement, and idol attachment as barriers toward sustainable fashion (SF) purchase
intentions in Japan. To assess this model, a survey among 166 Japanese private university
students was carried out, and a multiple linear regression analysis was used to test the
hypotheses.
Findings: Our results confirm the importance of attitudes and perceived behavior control in
predicting SF purchase intentions, however not subjective norms, contradicting previous
findings and theoretical assumptions. This was interpreted by a missing SF discourse in Japan
and a lesser influence of norms on the younger generation. Luxury orientation, fashion
involvement, and idol attachment could not be confirmed as barriers to SF purchase
intentions, which was explained by the connecting aspects of luxury, fashionability, and
sustainability.
Originality/Value: This research contributes to previous literature studying SFC and bridges
the gap of investigating SF intentions in the context of Japan using an extended TPB model,
adding factors that have not yet been applied. Our findings provide knowledge for sustainable
fashion brands aiming to build strategies to establish themselves successfully in the Japanese
market.
Keywords: Fashion, Luxury, Idols, Japan, Consumption, Sustainability, Theory of Planned
Behavior, Barriers, Sustainable Fashion
3
勿体無い (mottainai)
– the Japanese concept of respecting resources and a sense of regret over waste
1. Introduction
Following the old Japanese principle of mottainai, it is considered essential to respect
resources and recognize their inherent value while not discarding something unnecessarily
(Hasegawa, 1983). However, contemporary developments paint a different picture in Japan,
and, although the concept may be rooted in Japanese culture, it diminished in value in today’s
society (Crossley-Baxter, 2020).
In a current study about fashion by the Japanese Consumer Affairs Agency (CAA), about 59
percent of Japanese were not aware of the term ‘sustainable fashion’ (SF) and only 12 percent
stated that they understand the meaning of it (CAA, 2022b). Meanwhile, the fashion industry
is a major contributor to environmental harm due to high CO2 emissions, water consumption,
toxic waste, and plastics (Young, 2020). With an estimated 18.6 million tonnes of apparel
waste in 2020, as well as the industry with the second highest carbon footprint through its
production, it accounts for the second-largest waste-generating industry (Young, 2020).
Gigantic fast-fashion businesses, referring to inexpensive clothing produced rapidly by
mass-market retailers in response to the latest trends, further contribute to this problem.
Japanese fast-fashion retailer Uniqlo Co. generated global revenue of around 843 billion
Japanese yen (USD 6.2 billion) in 2021, being the subsidiary of Fast Retailing Co., the
leading domestic company within Japan’s apparel industry with sales over two trillion yen
(USD 14.72 billion) the same year (Mitsui Fudosan, 2022). Meanwhile, a total of 512,000
tons of clothing in Japan was discarded for incineration or use as a landfill (CAA, 2022a).
Thus, not aligning with respectful conduct regarding resources and regret over waste, this
shows the pressing need to strengthen the development of sustainable fashion in Japan. SF is
a movement opposing the wastefulness of the fashion industry by selling clothes, which are
either designed for long-term use, produced in an environmentally friendly way (Saricam &
Okur, 2019), or clothes resold through second-hand. In order to achieve more popularity of
SF in Japan, one critical aspect is to investigate consumers’ intentions and barriers to
purchasing sustainable fashion, which is the focus of this study.
The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), is a model of consumer behavior which examines
the factors which influence an individual’s behavioral intention and subsequently their
behavior (Ajzen, 1991). It proposes one’s attitudes towards a behavior, subjective norms, and
perceived behavioral control as the main predictors and was used in various studies in the
context of sustainable fashion consumption (e.g. Brandão & da Costa, 2021; Bong Ko & Jin,
2017; Kang et al., 2013; Zhang et al. 2019). However, as previous research reveals, it has
neither been used nor adapted in the context of SFC intentions in Japan (Dabas & Whang,
2022).
4
To develop existing research, we apply the TPB framework to this context and extend the
model with multiple sociocultural factors that we identified as obstacles to SFC in Japanese
society.
Japanese customers have been ranked as one of the top worldwide luxury brand consumers
(Reyes, 2021). Purchasing luxury brands is a sign of success in life in Japan (Slade, 2020),
indicating a high luxury orientation in Japanese society (Reyes, 2021). However, luxury and
sustainability are found as diverging concepts (e.g. Achabou & Dekhili, 2013; Kapferer &
Michaut-Denizeau, 2014) and while sustainability is connected with altruism and ethics,
luxury has been linked with overconsumption and pleasure (Athwal et al., 2019; Jain, 2018).
Thus, luxury fashion and sustainable consumption are difficult to match.
Secondly, Tokyo, Japan is one of the most trend-setting cities in East Asia; being fashionable
and following the latest styles is especially important for the younger generation (Kawamura,
2006). However, high fashion involvement was negatively associated with the willingness to
purchase sustainable clothing (Legere & Kang, 2020; Roozen et al., 2021) and SF was
perceived as unfashionable, unexciting in style as well as limited in variety (Moon et al.,
2014; Ozdamar Ertekin & Atik, 2014).
Thirdly, idols (Korean (K-) and Japanese (J-)) are an integral part of Japanese society.
Everything ‘Korean-from’ has a high demand in Japan (Bartlett, 2022) and J-Idols display the
ideal values of what Japanese society embraces (Randy, 2019). They attract great attention
and have a strong impact with the messages they convey, which particularly affects people
with high idol attachment. However, instead of sustainable fashion, these idols promote
luxury brands, for instance by being brand ambassadors for high-end brands like Fendi, Dior,
or Gucci (Wills, 2021; Nayyar, 2023).
Based on a review of the last 25 years of research, over 200 studies were conducted between
1995 and 2020 on sustainable fashion consumption (Dabas & Whang, 2022). Nevertheless,
most studies focus on the U.S. and Western European countries with only a few studies
focusing on Asian countries and even less on Japan (Kong & Ko, 2017; Dhir et al. 2021a,
2021b). Existing research, which focused on East Asia, showed varying results between
Chinese, South-Korean, and Japanese samples despite comparable cultural backgrounds
(Kong & Ko, 2017). So far, no Japanese study applied the TPB to SF consumption nor
integrated the proposed barriers into the model. Although targeting environmental concern
and morality seem to be reasonable to increase consumers’ intentions to buy sustainable
fashion, these are not the main criteria when buying decisions are taken (Boulstridge &
Carrigan, 2000; Kong et al., 2016). Especially in fashion, consumers’ desires are the main
driver for a purchase decision, not guilt (Niinimäki, 2010). Thus, we identified the need for
research to apply the TPB model to SFC in Japan, and examine the proposed barriers of
luxury orientation, fashion involvement, and idol attachment. This leads to two main
questions guiding our research:
RQ1: How does the TPB framework (attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavior
control) apply to SF purchase intentions in Japan?
RQ2: How do luxury orientation, fashion involvement, and idol attachment influence
intentions to purchase SF?
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The scope of this study covered private university students in Tokyo, Japan who are assumed
to be a suitable target group due to sufficient financial means for potentially consuming
sustainable fashion, a certain fashion consciousness, and an interest in following new trends
by purchasing clothes (Kawamura, 2006). Furthermore, we do not compare the results to the
Western context, as this goes beyond the scope of the paper.
The theoretical contribution of this thesis is to test the application of an extended TPB in the
Japanese context and add potentially relevant barriers to the existing literature. Based on the
results of this study, sustainable fashion brands, aiming to enter the Japanese market, can
apply our findings and develop strategies to establish themselves successfully in Japan.
2. Literature Review & Theoretical Framework
In the following, relevant literature on sustainable fashion is highlighted and elaborated.
Therefore, we define the concept of sustainable fashion consumption, summarize previous
findings in this field of research, and present possible barriers in Japan to bridge the identified
research gap.
2.1 Sustainable Fashion Consumption
The concept of sustainable fashion consumption is defined differently around diverse sources
and thus offers a variety of definitions. With sustainable, we refer to the definition of
sustainable development in the 1987 Brundtland report as the 'development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs' (Brundtland, 1987). Sustainable fashion can be defined as fashion that meets the needs
of the present without compromising the future. In this paper, we are emphasizing the
ecological dimension of the concept. Therefore, sustainable fashion consumption relates to
buying clothes that are designed for long-term use as well as clothes that are produced in a
non-harmful way to the environment (Saricam & Okur, 2019), opposing the practice of
over-consuming and rapid mass production of inexpensive clothes in response to latest trends
(Birtwistle & Moore, 2007). We also include the field of second-hand clothing, referring to
clothes that have been previously owned and resold, as it similarly prolongs the lifespan of
clothing and does not require the production of new fabrics.
2.1.1 Barriers to Sustainable Fashion Consumption
Sustainable fashion consumption and its influencing factors have been investigated by a
growing body of research, looking from different perspectives and considering different
contexts. A systematic review of the last 25 years of research on sustainable fashion
consumption (SFC) identified 213 studies, undertaken between 1995 and 2020 (Dabas &
Whang, 2022). The authors highlight the expansion of the body and scope of SFC research,
including a larger variety of influential factors. Product-based factors, consumer values,
consumer knowledge, normative influences, and fashion orientation emerged as major
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frequently researched themes in SFC research (Dabas & Whang, 2022; Brandão & da Costa,
2021; Connell, 2010; McNeill & Moore, 2015; Diddi et al., 2019).
However, when looking at the distribution of research across countries, the identified
literature is heavily focused on Western countries and overlooks other regions, including East
Asia and Japan. Most studies that evaluate the factor of fashion orientation were conducted in
the U.S. and Western European countries (n = 31) with only two studies conducted in South
Korea (n=2) (Dabas & Whang, 2022). The review also compared the results of studies where
the cultural context resulted in a different association of the factor. For instance, unlike other
studies conducted in the Western context that found altruism as a positively contributing
factor (e.g. Reimers et al., 2016), a study in Ecuador showed a negative association between
altruism and sustainable consumption behavior (Cruz-Cárdenas et al., 2019). Similarly, a
study on an individual’s orientation to nature predicted sustainable consumption only in the
U.S. sample but not in the China sample (Bong Ko & Jin, 2017). Based on their synthesis of
findings, the review authors stress the need to expand the cross-cultural research and include
cultural, ethnic, and gender differences in future studies (Dabas & Whang, 2022).
2.1.2 Barriers to SFC in Japan
Only a few studies to date have investigated SFC using Japanese samples (Kong & Ko,
2017, Dhir et al., 2021a, 2021b). Kong & Ko (2017) examined consumers in South Korea,
China, and Japan to better understand their decision-making processes regarding sustainable
fashion. The results stated that interest in SF is growing, but actual purchasing behavior is
lacking behind. Consumers failed to align their behavior with their positive attitudes toward
sustainable consumption. A positive attitude towards SF was detected when the product is not
perceived as a risk. Participants who are loyal to sustainable products tended to focus on
health, eco-friendliness, and economic benefits. If a consumer realized that the purchase of a
sustainable product is no harm to their health or finances, they were more likely to purchase
sustainable fashion products. Furthermore, they found that consumers of sustainable products
have strong environmental concerns, product knowledge, and positive perceived benefits.
Some people who were hesitant to purchase SF were skeptical about the quality and aesthetic
value of it (Kong & Ko, 2017).
However, comparing the three countries China, South Korea, and Japan, they found varying
results despite the comparable cultural background, indicating the need for different
marketing approaches. For instance, Chinese consumers were more educated about
environmental issues, more involved, and motivated to be ethical consumers, while Korean
and Japanese consumers were focused on avoiding uncertainty and risk in their
decision-making. Japanese consumers were similar to Korean consumers in having negative
perceptions about perceived risks and preferring health-related benefits. As the authors
pointed out, this difference in findings among Chinese, Korean, and Japanese consumers
showed a divergence from previous studies (Kong & Ko, 2017). This underlines the potential
problem of generalizing findings even between East-Asian countries and the necessity to
examine Japanese consumers and their SF behavior particularly.
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Another study by Dhir et al. (2021a) sought to identify the drivers of green apparel purchase
behavior to mitigate the intention-behavior gap. Japan was specifically chosen due to
potentially adding new findings to existing literature that predominantly focused on Europe
and North America. Using a Stimulus-Organism-Behavior-Consequence (SOBC) approach, it
investigates the six under-researched variables of optimism, pessimism, labeling desire,
labeling satisfaction, perceived effectiveness, and shopping routine. Positive associations
were found between optimism and labeling desire and satisfaction, which were positively
associated with purchase intentions. Likewise, shopping routine was positively associated
with purchase intentions. In a second study by Dhir et al. (2021b) using an
attitude-behavior-context theory, it was added that green trust, environmental attitude, and
labeling satisfaction predicted green apparel purchases.
However, mentioned studies (Kong & Ko, 2017, Dhir et al., 2021a, 2021b) focused their
research on addressing a potential attitude-behavior gap rather than consumers’ purchase
intentions as well as different theoretical approaches to our study.
2.2 Theory of Planned Behavior
The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) is a social-psychological model of consumer
behavior which proposes one’s attitudes towards a behavior, subjective norms, and perceived
behavioral control as the main predictors of an individual’s behavioral intention and
subsequently behavior (Ajzen, 1991).
In the context of sustainable fashion, the TPB has been found as a relevant theory for
investigating environmental behavior (Ozcaglar-Toulouse et al., 2006; Yazdanpanah &
Forouzani, 2015; Zhang et al., 2019, Maichum et al., 2016) and has been used in various
previous studies in the context of sustainable fashion consumption (Brandão & da Costa,
2021; Bong Ko & Jin, 2017; Kang et al., 2013; McNeill & Venter, 2019; Varshneya &
Pandey, 2017). In Japan, a TPB framework has been applied and supported in the areas of
tourism (Quintal et al., 2010), medical tourism (Lee, Han & Lockyer, 2012), organ donation
(Bresnahan et al., 2007), and mobile technology (Koeder, Mohammed & Sugai, 2011).
We base our empirical analysis on an extended model of the TPB to measure the importance
of different factors to SFC (Figure 1). The scope of this study is limited to SF purchase
intentions, which constitute the proxy of actual behavior in the TPB model (Ajzen, 1991).
2.2.1 Attitudes
Attitudes (ATT) refer to an individual’s beliefs in the results that can be achieved by a
behavior, this is, the level to which a person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of that
behavior (Ajzen, 1991; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). The TPB claims that the more positive an
attitude is toward a particular behavior, the higher the likelihood of an individual's behavioral
intention and subsequently to perform a certain behavior (Ajzen, 1991).
Several empirical studies in the past support the claim of a positive association between
attitude and purchase intentions (Bredahl, 2001; Chen, 2007; Michaelidou & Hassan, 2010;
Sheppard et al., 1988). In other areas of research using Japanese samples (e.g. traveling,
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Quintal et al., 2010; Lee et al. 2012), attitudes were found as significant predictors of
intentions. When it comes to the context of sustainability, previous studies on green products
Figure 1. Proposed conceptual framework
and environment-related behavior support the positive association between attitudes and
green purchasing intention (Yadav & Pathak, 2016; Maichum et al., 2016; Yazdanpanah &
Forouzani, 2015). According to Yadav & Pathak (2016), attitudes had the second greatest
association with purchase intentions after environmental concerns. In a Thai study, attitudes
were found as the most significant influence on green purchase intentions (Maichum et al.,
2016) and another study that used the TPB with Iranian students found that only attitudes
were a significant predictor of intentions to purchase organic food (Yazdanpanah &
Forouzani, 2015). Relating to sustainable fashion consumption, Saricam & Okur (2019)
found that attitudes had by far the strongest positive relationship with purchase intentions.
Thus, we argue that:
H1: A positive attitude towards sustainable fashion (SF) positively influences the intention to
purchase SF.
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2.2.2 Subjective Norms
Subjective norms (SN) are defined as the perception of social pressure, for example of family,
friends, or colleagues, to comply with a certain behavior (Ajzen, 2006; Fishbein et al., 2003;
Kim & Han, 2010; Brandão & da Costa, 2021). It refers to the normative social belief of a
person regarding the behavior (Hansen, 2008).
In the context of sustainable consumption, multiple studies found that consumption patterns
are influenced by norms (Kollmuss & Agyeman, 2002; Thøgersen, 2010). Social influence
was found as the most essential driver for green purchase intentions (Lee, 2008). Another
preceding survey study by Lam and Hsu (2006) confirms subjective norms as important in
predicting intention in the sustainable fashion context. Kang et al. (2013) found that purchase
intentions for environmentally sustainable apparel of young consumers were positively
predicted by subjective norms. A more recent study showed that subjective norms were the
secondarily most influential factor on purchase intention after attitudes (Saricam & Okur,
2019). Other findings support that subjective norms affected the purchase intention for
hedonic green products, which included organic fashion (Zhang et al., 2019).
Social norms are culturally learned as a result of living in a specific national culture or
habitus (Billig, 1995; Hofstede, 1991). They are often derived from the cultural standards of a
country or emerge from group norms (Terry, Hogg, & White, 1999) and can act as a
‘cohesive glue’ (Milton et al., 2018, p. 401). This is also applicable to the context of
sustainable consumption (Thøgersen, 2010; Minton et al., 2012): The subjective norm is
connected with culture meaning that a consumer’s likelihood to perform a sustainable
behavior will depend on what others think of this particular behavior and the importance of
the public opinion within the culture (Milton et al., 2018).
Originating from China, the school of Confucianism has strongly determined the Japanese
way of thinking (Dolan & Worden, 1994). It has an influence on people’s propensity to
conform to social group norms and maintain face (Redding & Michael, 1983). In a
cross-cultural study on green purchasing intentions, Chan & Lau (2002) also found that the
subjective norm had a stronger influence on Chinese consumers than on American
consumers, which was partly attributed to the cultural differences between both countries.
Furthermore, studying green purchase intentions in India, Screen et al. (2018) found that
collectivism had a strong relationship with subjective norms.
Due to the central role which collectivism also plays in Japan, our assumption is that
subjective norms could have a similarly high impact in this context. We argue that subjective
norms affect Japanese consumers’ intentions to purchase sustainable fashion.
Thus:
H2: Positive subjective norms towards SF positively influence the intention to purchase SF.
2.2.3 Perceived Behavior Control
Perceived behavior control (PBC) refers to the individual’s perception of ease or difficulty to
perform a certain behavior including aspects like accessibility, availability, time, resources,
and opportunities (Ajzen, 1991; Lam & Hsu, 2006). PBC can account for considerable
10
variance in behavioral intentions and actions. In this paper, we refer to PBC as the availability
and accessibility of sustainable fashion in Tokyo.
Previous literature that used the TPB as a theoretical framework for sustainable fashion
confirmed the influence of PBC on the intention to purchase green apparel (Brandão & da
Costa, 2021; Bo, Ko & Jin, 2017, Zhang et al., 2019). Brandão & da Costa (2021) even found
PBC played the greatest role in predicting the intention to buy sustainable fashion. Another
study found PBC to be significant, but less influential than other TPB factors in affecting
customer intentions to buy sustainable fashion (Saricam & Okur, 2019). Opposing these
findings, a study by Kang et al. (2013) showed that the purchase intentions of young
consumers for sustainable fashion were positively influenced by attitudes and subjective
norms but not by PBC, which was explained by a problematic operationalization due to
differences in organic cotton apparel availability.
Following the major body of research, we hypothesize a positive relationship of PBC with the
intention to purchase SF in Japan.
Hence, we argue that:
H3: Perceived behavioral control (PBC) towards SF positively influences the intention to
purchase SF.
2.3 Additions to the TPB
Despite previous research showing behavioral intention is predictable from the three
components of the model (e.g. Armitage & Conner, 2001a; Sheeran & Taylor, 1999), the
level of prediction strongly ranged in explaining the variance (28 to 40 percent on average),
questioning the sufficiency of the TPB in capturing all theoretical determinants of intention
(Rise et al., 2010). In response, increasing research has extended the original TPB model with
further constructs to improve the predictive power of the framework (e.g. Conner &
Armitage, 1998), which was already suggested by the authors of the TPB (Ajzen, 1991).
This recommendation has already been followed in the context of sustainability and green
products (e.g. Yazdanpanah & Forouzani, 2015, Brandão & da Costa, 2021; Bong Ko & Jin,
2017; Sreen et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2019). Saricam & Okur (2019) extended with
behavioral, normative, and control beliefs each affecting one TPB construct respectively.
Bong Ko & Jin (2017) added the dimensions of man-nature orientation for attitudes as well as
environmental knowledge for internal PBC and attitudes as predecessors. Sreen et al. (2018)
added collectivism, long-term orientation, and man-nature orientation as predecessors of the
TPB framework. Zhang et al. (2019) added the dimension of environmental concern as a
preceding and direct predictor of organic clothing purchase intentions. Brandão & da Costa
(2021) added environmental apparel knowledge, perceived value, price sensitivity, product
attributes & variety, availability, and skepticism, as predecessors of one or more TPB
constructs.
Following suit with studies like Sreen et al. (2018) and answering the call from review
literature (Dabas & Whang, 2022), there is a need for considering cultural differences and an
integration of culture-specific factors when examining sustainable fashion consumption.
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Aiming to extend the TPB with sociocultural factors relevant to Japan, this study thus covers
the aspects of luxury orientation, fashion involvement, and idol attachment which are
presented in the following.
2.3.1 Luxury Orientation
Luxury goods are those whose price and quality ratios are usually the highest in the market
(McKinsey, 1990), and distinguish themselves through exclusivity or rarity (Wiedmann et al.,
2009). Furthermore, the consumption of luxury goods is connected with the satisfaction of
psychological needs (Nia & Zaichkowsky, 2000). It can act as a symbol of expressing
personal and social identity (Vickers & Renand, 2003) or take place in order to signal status,
success, distinction, or fuel the desire to impress social others, whose value also depends on
social and individual aspects (Wiedmann et al., 2009).
Japan is known for its austere luxury consumption (Donzé & Fujioka, 2018) and is one of the
largest luxury markets in the world today (Isozaki & Donzé, 2022). According to a recent
marketing insight article, Bvlgari, Salvatore Ferragamo, and Gucci earn 27% of their global
revenue in the Japanese market and Louis Vuitton earns half its global profits from its 60
stores on the island (Evans, 2018). Luxurious brands became embedded in Japanese culture
with the wealthiest moments in history being almost always connected with the well-known
European fashion brands and possessing luxury brands can count as a sign of a successful life
in Japan (Slade, 2020).
However, according to the majority of research, sustainability, and luxury are perceived as
contrasting concepts (Kapferer & Michaut-Denizeau, 2014; Nash et al., 2016; Athwal et al.,
2019; Sauers, 2010). Luxury goods are connected with overconsumption, personal pleasure
and excess while on the other side, sustainability is connected with ethics, altruism, respect,
and awareness for others (Athwal et al., 2019; Jain, 2018; Moraes et al., 2017; Nash et al.,
2016; Widloecher, 2010). Other studies found that luxury-oriented consumers tend to not
prioritize sustainability-related aspects when deciding for luxury goods (Davies et al., 2012;
Kapferer & Michaut-Denizeau, 2015). Although there is a minority of research aiming to
connect green products with status signaling and conspicuous consumption of green products,
this is also argued to be dependent on the context and culture (Griskevicius & Van den Bergh,
2010).
Therefore, due to the high luxury orientation in Japanese society and the expression of
success through luxury consumption, we assume that luxury fashion items are preferred over
sustainable fashion.
Thus, our hypothesis is:
H4: Luxury orientation negatively influences the intention to purchase SF.
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2.3.2 Fashion Involvement
When it comes to Japan, local fashion has not only inspired many Western designers in the
world since the seventies, but it also has become a force that contributes to the general
aesthetic of fashion (Kawamura, 2006). Especially the young generation in spots such as
Shibuya or Harajuku in Tokyo can be considered extremely fashionable. Even people from
Taiwan and Korea visit Tokyo just to get new fashion ideas. According to Kawamura (2006),
telling consumers that a fashion item is popular in Tokyo is a selling point.
Previous research identified style, fit, and quality as important factors for fashion consumers
(Niinimäki, 2010; Rayman et al., 2011) and influential to fashion purchase intentions (Ko et
al., 2011; Wu & Chalip, 2014). However, these characteristics are usually not associated with
sustainable fashion (Blasi et al., 2020; Han & Ko, 2017; Harris et al., 2016). Sustainable
clothing designs were found having a negative reputation of being unfashionable, unexciting,
and coming with a limited variety, which negatively affects SFC (Moon et al., 2014; Ozdamar
Ertekin & Atik, 2014). Additionally, a perceived lack of style was found as one of the
primary reasons for not engaging in sustainable clothing consumption behavior in a U.S.
study (Diddi et al., 2019). High fashion involvement was also negatively associated with the
willingness to purchase a slow fashion product (Legere & Kang, 2020; Roozen et al., 2021).
Additionally, the attitude to being a fashionable person was found to outweigh the need to be
socially responsible (McNeill & Moore, 2015). Brandão & da Costa (2021) confirm the
importance of product attributes and variety to develop intentions towards SFC. Wu & Chalip
(2014) and Ko et al. (2011) even suggest it as the greatest predictor. In other words, a high
fashion involvement valuing style, fit, quality, and variety of options can act as a barrier
towards SFC.
Based on this, we argue:
H5: Fashion involvement negatively influences the intention to purchase SF.
2.3.3 Idol Attachment
In addition to family and peer relationships, young adults often form secondary attachments
to popular media figures (Boon & Lomore, 2001). With idol attachment, we refer to the
strong emotions and admiration towards a celebrity figure and their personal attributes
(Silvera & Austad, 2004; Vlachos et al., 2010). Such idols often serve as idealized
self-images for admirers due to qualities or traits they would like to have or develop in
themselves (Caughey, 1994). The idol becomes a role model who motivates individuals to
adopt a certain lifestyle (Lockwood & Kunda, 1997) or a desired behavior (Desai & Basuroy,
2005). This includes the enactment of a variety of behaviors intended to bring about changes
in their physical appearance, abilities, or values in order to bring these aspects more in line
with the image of their idol (Caughey, 1994). This attachment can also influence purchase
decisions (Martin & Bush, 2000).
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When it comes to Japan, so-called Korean (K-) and Japanese (J-) idols are an integral part
and big influence in Japanese society. K-Idol celebrities are working in the field of K-Pop in
South Korea, either as a solo artist or a member of a group, or as an actor in a Korean Drama
(K-drama), a genre for series or movies directed in Korea. In the past, different idols have
significantly shaped markets (Kim, 2021; Jang, 2012) and even influenced diplomacy
(Bartlett, 2022). For instance, the Korean band BTS was even invited to the United Nations to
hold a speech (Lee, 2009b). In South Korea, it went to an extent where not the military has
been used for strengthening the position of the country in the world but K-pop or K-dramas
(Bartlett, 2022). Previous scholars even called these influences soft power (Nye, 1990).
Similarly, J-idols are an extremely important cultural aspect of Japanese society. They are
entertainers who display the ideal values of what Japanese society, in one form or another,
embraces (Randy, 2019). In other words, these idols can attract great attention and have a
strong impact on a large number of people with the messages they convey and how they
behave. Thus, Japanese society is at least partly governed by the principles Japanese idols
publicly express.
This potential influence is also picked up for marketing purposes as idols can market cultural
commodities through their fashion and commercials (Lee, 2009a). Marketing that utilizes
idols has greatly influenced not only the music market but also many other areas of interest
for teenagers and consumers in their twenties. This includes areas of fashion, beauty,
advertising, and movies (Kim, 2021). The effect of K-idols on the fashion industry became
even more remarkable with the boom in the Chinese entertainment scene, which is the
world's fastest-growing consumer group (Jang, 2012) and K-idols became front-row identities
at haute couture fashion shows (Kim, 2021).
However, famous K-Idols primarily collaborate with popular luxury brands (Kim, 2021; Kim,
2015): For instance, Song Hye Kyo (Korean actress) is a brand ambassador for Fendi, Jun Ji
Hyun (Korean actress) for Alexander McQueen and EXO's Kai (Korean singer) for Gucci
(Wills, 2021). Singers of BTS have recently closed deals with Valentino, Louis Vuitton, Dior,
and Versace, all names of high-end luxury brands.
That said, K-idols are not promoting sustainability and sustainable fashion brands and hence
do not motivate their fans to adopt a more sustainable fashion style. We argue that consumers
who identify strongly with idols have low intentions to purchase sustainable fashion.
Thus, our hypothesis is:
H6: Idol attachment negatively influences the intention to purchase SF.
3. Methodology and Data Collection
Aligning with previous studies using the TPB framework in the context of sustainable fashion
(e.g. Kang et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2019; Brandão et al., 2021), we chose a quantitative
study approach to test our hypotheses based on an extended TPB model.
14
In the following, the methodology of the conducted research will be presented. This includes
the chosen population and sample, measurements, collection and analysis process.
3.1 Population and Sample
Our target population was Japanese university students as this group was seen as most
interesting and suitable to examine when it comes to fashion as well as sustainability.
Particularly the younger generation in Tokyo is considered highly fashionable and people
from all over Asia travel to the city to see the newest trends in Shibuya or Harajuku
(Kawamura, 2006). Additionally, Tokyo University students show a significantly higher
awareness of 90% of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) compared to the
general public (Fabric, 2022).
For our sample, we chose to focus on students at three of the major private universities of the
city (Waseda University, Keio University and Sophia University).
In total a number of 167 answers were recorded. 38 responses were submitted in English and
129 in Japanese. One response was deleted due to overall missing answers, one other
response had missing values for 11% of items while all other responses had less than 5%
missing. As there was no pattern detected regarding the missing values and the extent was
sufficiently low, this was considered as MCAR (missing completely at random) and the mean
substitution technique was applied in order to complete the data with the mean values (Hair et
al., 2014). This method was preferred over a complete elimination of respondents to preserve
as much data as possible. This resulted in a remainder of 166 responses (n = 166).
Sample size has a direct impact on the statistical power and generalizability of the model
(Hair et al., 2014). To maintain power of .8 in multiple regression, a minimum sample of 50
is suggested, preferably 100 observations (Hair et al., 2014). With 166 responses, this study
exceeds the requirement of 100 observations, indicating statistical power. Regarding the
generalizability of the results, the ratio of observations to independent variables is examined.
As a rule of thumb, the ratio should be at least 5:1 observations per independent variable,
with a desired level of above 15 observations per variable (Hair et al., 2014). With six latent
constructs, 22 items (variables) and 166 responses, this results in 27 observations per latent
construct but less than 8 observations per item, indicating limited generalizability of the
results due to the sample size. Lastly, the larger the sample’s degrees of freedom (df), the
more generalizable the results (Hair et al., 2014). An identification check resulted in 160 df
which qualifies the overall model as being overidentified, favoring the generalizability of the
results.
3.2 Measurements
In order to measure the included constructs, we relied on the following items for the study
(see Table 1). The scale used for all items was a five-point likert scale which ranged from
strongly disagree to strongly agree. This was adapted from the original studies using a
seven-point likert scale (e.g. Zhang & Kim, 2013). Despite a found optimized reliability
15
using a seven-point scale (Colman et al., 1997), existing literature suggests that a five-point
scale showed to be less confusing and to increase response rate (Babakus & Mangold, 1992;
Devlin et al., 1993). Hence, we decided to rely on a five-point scale to keep the survey
user-friendly, quick and easy to answer, and achieve a high response rate as a result.
Attitudes was taken from Brandão & da Costa (2021) and Kim & Han (2010). However, three
items had to be removed due to translation issues as it resulted in the same Japanese word for
multiple items. In general, balancing scale length with parsimony in measurement is a
debated issue (Clark & Watson, 1995). As three to four items per scale are generally
considered sufficient to develop valid constructs (Hair et al., 2014), we chose to continue
with the remaining 4 items. Regarding the construct subjective norms, all items have been
included as used by Brandão & da Costa (2021). PBC was also taken from Brandão & da
Costa (2021) but reduced by one item. This was because we faced similar translation
difficulties as with attitudes and aimed to prevent confusing participants. Although this
resulted in less than the recommended three items per construct (Hair et al. 2014), we argue
that this can still allow a valid and reliable construct if certain conditions are met. Previous
research states that a construct with two items can be considered reliable when the items are
highly correlated (r > .7) with each other but fairly uncorrelated with other variables (Yong &
Pearce, 2013). Moreover, with the inclusion of other factors with three or more items, a
model identification problem (under-identification) can be avoided through the general
over-identification of the model (Hair et al., 2014). However, for choosing the number of
scale items to measure a construct, careful consideration and interpretation are required
(Bearden & Netemeyer, 1999; Hair et al., 2014; Yong & Pearce, 2013).
The factors of luxury orientation, fashion involvement, and idol attachment have been
extracted from Zhang & Kim (2013) which focused on fashion consumption in China.
Luxury orientation and its items were combined and adapted from the original constructs
called materialism and brand consciousness in the study. We argue that in the Japanese
context, materialism and brand consciousness belong to luxury orientation since they have
been ranked as one of the top worldwide foreign luxury brand consumers (Reyes, 2021) and
expensive possessions have an integral role (Slade, 2020). With the combination of both
factors, items that were considered beyond the concept of luxury orientation were not
included, resulting in five items.
Fashion involvement and its items were taken from the equally named factor in the study.
The factor idol attachment was derived from Zhang & Kim’s (2013) construct named ‘social
comparison’. However, as the goal was to derive a factor only focusing on idols, solely the
items that referred to the comparison with celebrities, movie stars and pop singers were used.
Furthermore, an initial question if there are any idols being followed was added resulting in
four items for this construct. All the phrasing of items by Zhang & Kim (2013) was adapted
from a question style (“How…?”) to statements (“I would…”), so respondents could agree or
disagree.
For the dependent variable SF purchase intentions, the term “sustainable clothing
consumption behavior” used by Brandão & Costa (2021) was simplified to “buy sustainable
16
fashion” in order to create an easier understanding for participants. Two items (“I plan” and
“I try to”) used in Brandão & da Costa (2021) were also removed due to translation issues.
After consulting native speakers, a translation of the items to Japanese resulted in the same
Japanese Kanji-characters. Once more resulting in two items per construct, less than the
statistical recommendation of three (e.g. Hair et al., 2014), we argue similarly with above,
that, if the additional high correlation criteria are met (Yong & Pearce, 2013), and the
construct is considered carefully and interpreted with caution (e.g. Bearden & Netemeyer,
1999), it can be included in the model.
Respondents were all given brief introductions of the concepts of luxury, idols, and
sustainable fashion, based on the definitions in this study, so respondents were all referring to
the same terms when answering the survey.
Lastly, in reference to Brandão & da Costa (2021), the variables age and gender of
respondents were collected to control for sociodemographics. Age was divided into four
categories from 18 to over 30 years, and gender was asked using ‘male’, ‘female’ and ‘prefer
not to say’. However, in contrast to the referenced study, no further controls for nationality,
main occupation, income, education were added due to the assumed homogeneity of
respondents as Japanese private university students.
Table 1. Constructs & Items
Construct Items Reference
Attitudes (ATT) For me, buying sustainable fashion is Brandão & da Costa,
good 2021; Kim & Han,2010
wise
pleasant
desirable
Subjective Norms People who are important to me think I should buy Brandão & da Costa,
(SN) sustainable fashion 2021
People who are important to me would approve me buying
sustainable fashion
Most people who are important to me buy sustainable
fashion
Perceived Behavior I am confident that, if I want to, I could buy sustainable Brandão & da Costa,
Control (PBC) fashion 2021
I have resources, time and opportunities to buy sustainable
fashion
17
Table 1 (cont.). Constructs & Items
Construct Items Reference
Luxury Orientation I admire people who own expensive homes, cars or clothes Zhang & Kim, 2013
(L) I see acquiring material possessions as an achievement in
life
I would feel happier if I could afford more things
Material possessions I own say how well I’m doing in life
I’m willing to pay higher prices for luxury brands
Fashion Fashion is important to me Zhang & Kim, 2013
Involvement (F) I usually have one or more of the very latest fashion items
I like to shop for fashion goods
I usually dress for fashion, not comfort
Idol Attachment (I) I have one or more idol that I look up to Zhang & Kim, 2013;
I pay attention to the products my idols are using Zhou et al., 2021
I pay attention to the fashion styles of my idols
My product choices are influenced by the idols I admire
SF Purchase I’m willing to buy sustainable fashion Brandão & da Costa,
Intention (SPI) I intend to buy sustainable fashion 2021
Age 18-22, 23-26, 27-30, Over 30
Gender Male, Female, Prefer not to say
3.3 Data Collection
To collect data, a standardized online questionnaire was developed in Google Forms. To
allow answers in Japanese, the original English form was translated with the help of a
translation tool and the proofreading of three Japanese native speakers. Both versions were
made available for respondents to fill out and respondents were able to choose the language
they feel more comfortable with.
Responses were generated from surveying students of the three universities in Tokyo. Firstly,
data was collected by reaching out to Japanese fellow students as well as professors from the
three universities and asking them to share the survey with other students and in their
networks. Secondly, we handed out the questionnaire on-site to students on the university
campus, approaching students who randomly crossed our path. This approach accounted for
the largest part of the responses. In both methods of data collection, we emphasized the
18
anonymity of the survey results and facilitated completion on personal devices using a link or
QR code.
3.4 Data Quality
The sampling approach consisted of a mix of different non-probability techniques, including
convenience and snowball sampling. Although accessible and quick, non-probability
sampling has a risk of a sampling and selection bias which restricts the generalizability of
findings (Hair et al. 2014). The recruiting of participants via other participants limits the
randomness of respondents and can, therefore, skew the results. Similarly, as the number of
students on campus was scarce due to the semester break, we were not following specific
randomization criteria to approach.
Nevertheless, we aimed to consider potential biases and effects that could impede valid and
reliable results. To prevent a potential question order effect, which refers to the phenomenon
that different orders in which questions or response alternatives are presented may influence
respondents’ answers (Schuman & Presser, 1981), participants were asked first about their
general fashion consumption, then about sustainable fashion in order to prevent a
‘sustainability priming’ of fashion answers. By theory, earlier items can ‘prime’ certain
beliefs and values, making it easier for respondents to access and retrieve them when
answering later questions (Stefkovics & Kmetty, 2022). However, in the study of Stark et al.
(2020) question order effects were stronger in more individualistic countries than in more
collectivistic countries and particularly, in the Japanese sample of Stark et al. (2020) a
question order effect could not be found. Thus, no further attention was paid to the sequence
of survey questions.
Secondly, a response bias refers to a type of selection bias that occurs when respondents
self-select themselves for a study (Sedgwick, 2014). Despite relying on the openness of
participants to take part in the survey, we tried to minimize a self-selection bias by the careful
choice of respondents by the researchers, as far as possible. For instance, we did not only
choose people who look fashionable or wear sustainable fashion brands. Furthermore, the
topic of sustainability was not mentioned at the beginning of the survey to limit self-selection
of pro-sustainable participants. Still, self-selection bias could have an influence on the
snowballed part of the sample.
Lastly, as a major part of the survey was done in-person on campus, participants could be
prone to an attention bias, referring to the effect that people change their behavior because
they know they are being watched (Sedgwick & Greenwood, 2015). This could skew
respondents’ answers towards what they think was desired by the researchers. Although
difficult to avoid completely when surveying in-person, participants were given time and
space, the ability to answer the questions using their phone (using a QR-code) and only
interacted in the case of questions or the completion of the survey.
Lastly, as a translation method, simple double (back-)translation was used (McGorry, 2000),
where the original version is translated into the target language and translated back to the
original language. Previous research on survey translation mentions this way as method of
19
choice (e.g. Homburg et al., 1999, Hofstede et al., 1999). However, ideally, this process
involves two independent, professional translators (McGorry, 2000). Due to budget and time
restrictions, translations were done in collaboration with Japanese friends and translation
tools instead.
3.5 Data Analysis
As a first step, Japanese responses were translated back to English. Both, English and
Japanese data were merged into one data sheet. Next, all likert scale answers were coded into
numeric values (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). The socio-demographic data
regarding age brackets and gender were coded into dummy variables.
To analyze the dataset, we were using two methods. In the first step, a confirmatory factor
analysis (CFA) was conducted to confirm validity and reliability of the chosen items
representing the respective constructs. As items were also partly adapted or removed, to the
difference in context and the risk of translation errors, using a CFA was considered as
important. The CFA included statistical tests on construct validity and goodness of fit
measures of the model (Hair et al., 2014). Firstly, in terms of construct validity, convergent
validity was assessed by looking at the items’ factor loadings, average variance extracted
(AVE), Composite Reliability (CR) and Cronbach’s Alpha and comparing it with
recommended thresholds (Hair et al., 2014). Furthermore, the nomological and face validity
was assessed by careful examination (Hair et al., 2014) and discriminant validity was
examined by considering the Fornell-Larcker Criterion (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Secondly,
goodness of fit is evaluated by investigating the model’s chi-square (χ2), normed χ2, Root
Mean Square Square Error of Estimation (RMSEA), Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and
Tucker-Lewis-Index (TLI).
In the second step, the relationships between the variables were examined using multiple
linear regression (MLR). The MLR analysis is a method that quantitatively describes the
influence of several independent variables (or predictors) on a dependent variable. It shows
which predictors have a significant influence on the dependent variable and the strength of
those influences (Hair et al., 2014). As the aim of this paper was to explain the factors
influencing the intention to purchase sustainable fashion, the construct SF Purchase
intentions (SPI) was used as a dependent variable and the constructs validated in the CFA
were used as independent variables. Gender and age were added as controls to the regression
model and prevented a possible omitted variable bias (Hair et al., 2014). Thus, dummy
variables were created for the different age brackets and gender categories.
The model was analyzed for its explained variance (R²) and adjusted R² values and
significance. Regarding potential issues of multicollinearity, we were looking at the
correlation matrix of factors, the variation inflation factors (VIF), the tolerance as well as the
collinearity diagnostics for eigenvalues and condition indices (Hair et al., 2014). Based on
previous studies in this field (e.g. Brandão & da Costa, 2021), we applied a significance level
of 0.05, indicating a five percent risk of falsely concluding that a difference exists.
20
4. Results and Analysis
In this part, the general results are described followed by the confirmatory factor analysis
(CFA) to validate the theoretical constructs and secondly testing the hypothesized
relationships using multiple linear regression (MLR).
4.1 General Results
The distribution of results is visualized in Table 2. In terms of the socio-demographic data,
most (67%) of the respondents were between 18-22 years old. 44,6% of respondents were
male, 53,6% female, and 0,6% preferred not to say, being slightly skewed towards female
respondents. 77,1% answered in Japanese while 22,9% answered in English.
Table 2. Distribution of survey responses
n = 166 Completely Disagree Neither / Agree Completely
disagree nor agree
Attitudes (A)
For me, buying sustainable fashion is…
A1: …good 0% 0% 16.9% 60.8% 22.3%
(0) (0) (28) (101) (37)
A2: …wise 0% 3% 18.1% 51.8% 27.1%
(0) (5) (30) (86) (45)
A3: …pleasant 0.6% 4.8% 17.5% 50.6% 26.5%
(1) (8) (29) (84) (44)
A4: …desirable 0.6% 4.8% 17.5% 50.6% 26.5%
(1) (8) (29) (84) (44)
Subjective Norms (SN)
SN1: People who are important to me 0.6% 5.4% 43.4% 41.6% 9%
think I should buy sustainable fashion (1) (9) (72) (69) (15)
SN2: People who are important to me 0% 2.4% 19.9% 53.6% 24.1%
would approve me buying sustainable (0) (4) (33) (89) (40)
fashion
SN3: Most people who are important to 0.6% 6.6% 41% 41% 10.8%
me buy sustainable fashion (1) (11) (68) (68) (18)
Perceived Behavior Control (PBC)
PBC1: I am confident that, if I want to, 1.2% 7.8% 21.1% 39.2% 30.7%
I could buy sustainable fashion (2) (13) (35) (65) (51)
PBC2: I have resources, time and 5.4% 22.3% 24.1% 29.5% 18.7%
opportunities to buy sustainable fashion (9) (37) (40) (49) (31)
21
Table 2 (cont.). Distribution of survey responses
Completely Disagree Neither / Agree Completely
disagree nor agree
Luxury Orientation (L)
L1: I admire people who own expensive 8.4% 16.9% 28.9% 34.9% 10.8%
homes, cars or clothes (14) (28) (48) (58) (18)
L2: I see acquiring material 9% 21.7% 28.3% 34.3% 6.6%
possessions as an achievement in life (15) (36) (47) (57) (11)
L3: I would feel happier if I could 5.4% 12% 25.3% 39.8% 17.5%
afford more things (9) (20) (42) (66) (29)
L4: Material possessions I own say how 7.2% 23.5% 34.3% 27.1% 7.8%
well I’m doing in life (12) (39) (57) (45) (13)
L5: I’m willing to pay higher prices for 10.2% 13.9% 21.7% 44% 10.2%
luxury brands (17) (23) (36) (73) (17)
Fashion Involvement (F)
F1: Fashion is important to me 3.6% 2.4% 15.7% 51.2% 27.1%
(6) (4) (26) (85) (45)
F2: I usually have one or more of the 13.9% 19.9% 28.3% 28.9% 9%
very latest fashion items (23) (33) (47) (48) (15)
F3: I like to shop for fashion goods 5.4% 9% 16.9% 44.6% 24.1%
(9) (14) (28) (74) (40)
F4: I usually dress for fashion, not 6.6% 24.7% 25.3% 32.5% 10.8%
comfort (11) (41) (42) (54) (18)
Idol Attachment (I)
I1: I have one or more idol that I look 16.9% 11.4% 17.5% 32.5% 21.7%
up to (28) (19) (29) (54) (36)
I2: I pay attention to the products my 20.5% 19.9% 18.7% 27.1% 13.9%
idols are using (34) (33) (31) (45) (23)
I3: I pay attention to the fashion styles 16.3% 15.7% 18.7% 33.1% 16.3%
of my idols (27) (26) (31) (55) (27)
I4: My product choices are influenced 22.3% 19.9% 21.1% 26.5% 10.2%
by the idols I admire (37) (33) (35) (44) (17)
SF Purchase Intention (SPI)
SPI1: I’m willing to buy sustainable 0.6% 11.4% 25.3% 34.3% 28.3%
fashion (1) (19) (42) (57) (47)
SPI2: I intend to buy sustainable 3% 12.7% 34.9% 30.7% 18.7%
fashion (5) (21) (58) (51) (31)
Age 18-22 23-26 27-30 Over 30
66.9% (111) 17.5% (29) 3.6% (6) 11.4% (19)
Gender Male Female Prefer not to say
44.6% (74) 53.6% (89) (0.6%) 1
Response Language Japanese English
77.1% (128) 22.9% (38)
22
When it comes to the survey questions and the distribution of answers, a few distributions can
be highlighted.
Regarding attitudes, a great majority (almost 61% agreed and 22% totally) agreed that SF is
good (A1), while no respondent disagreed. A similar distribution was found for A2-A4.
About 52% agreed and 27% totally agreed on seeing sustainable fashion as wise (A2), 51%
agreed and 27% totally agreed on sustainable fashion being pleasant (A3), 49% agreed and
26% totally agreed on perceiving it as desirable (A4).
In terms of subjective norms, a close majority (approx. 42% agreed and 9% totally) agreed
that people who are important to them would buy sustainable fashion (SN1), while slightly
less (about 43%) said that people who are important to them neither/nor think they should
buy sustainable fashion, which shows a similar distribution with SN3. Lastly, a majority
(approx. 53% agreed and 24% totally) agreed that their peers would approve of them buying
sustainable fashion (SN2).
For PBC, a majority (approx. 39% agreed and 31% totally) agreed on being confident that
they could buy sustainable fashion if they wanted to (PBC1). Additionally, a majority (39%
agree and 28% totally) agree that if they have the resources, the time, and the opportunity to
buy sustainable fashion (PBC2).
Regarding respondents' luxury orientation, slightly less than half of respondents (35% agree
and 11% totally) agree that they admire people who have expensive goods. A similar
distribution was found for L2, L3, and L4. Lastly, the majority (44% agreed and 10% totally)
agreed to be willing to pay higher prices for luxury goods.
When it comes to fashion involvement, a majority (approx. 51% agreed and 27% totally)
agreed that fashion is important for them (F1). Less than 40% agreed (or totally agreed) that
they usually own the latest fashion (F2).
Asking about the participants' idol attachment, over half (33% agreed and 22% totally)
agreed to have an idol (I1). When it comes to the products used by idols (I2), less than the
majority (27% agreed and 14% totally) agreed to pay attention to the products their idols are
using. When looking at the idols' fashion style (I3), slightly more respondents (33% agree
and 16% totally) agree on paying attention. Relatively mixed is the distribution regarding the
influence idols have on product choices (I4).
Lastly, for the participants' intentions to buy SF, over half of the respondents (about 34%
agreed and 28% totally) agreed that they are willing to buy sustainable fashion (SPI1) and
exactly half also intend to do so, with 31% agreeing and 19% totally agreeing (SPI2).
4.2 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)
In the CFA, items (variables) are assigned to a construct before the analysis, testing their
goodness of fit and validity with sample data. The CFA aims to test how well the chosen
variables of a model represent the intended construct to measure (Hair et al., 2014).
The constructs we aimed to integrate into our model are 1) Attitudes, 2) Subjective Norms, 3)
PBC from the original TPB model, while adding 4) Luxury Orientation, 5) Fashion
Involvement, and 6) Idol Attachment.
23
Due to a software-related issue including constructs with two items or less (STATA error), the
construct of 3) PBC was checked separately regarding its validity and reliability using
another software (SPSS), leading to five factors remaining for the CFA. When developing the
overall measurement model in the CFA, unidimensionality is assumed, meaning a set of items
(variables) is only explained by a respective single underlying construct (Hair et al., 2014).
Hence, all cross-loadings were assumed to be 0 (Hair et al., 2014) and variables were
path-modeled to a single construct in the initial model. 1 factor with 5 variables, 3 factors
with 4 variables, and 1 factor with 3 variables were included in the CFA.
An identification check resulted in 160 degrees of freedom (df), which qualified the overall
model as being overidentified.
Regarding the goodness of fit statistics (Table 3), the CFA modeling with 5 constructs
provided a chi-square (χ2) of 291.315 as a global fit index. The normed χ2 (χ2 divided by df)
lies at 1.82, which indicates a good model fit as it is below a suggested threshold value of 3
(Alavi et al., 2020; Hair et al., 2014).
Despite the p-value being significant (p > .001, preferably above .05; Zimmer, 2019), the
RMSEA (=.071; preferably below .08; Hair et al., 2014), the CFI (=.929; good above .9,
preferably above .95) and the TLI (=.916, good above .9, preferably above .95) (Hair et al.,
2014; Kline, 2016) indicate a good model fit.
Table 3. Goodness of Fit
Selected model fit measures CFA model
χ2 (df)* 291.315 (160)
Normed chi-square 1.82
RMSEA .071
CFI .929
TLI .916
*p > .001
Nomological and face validity were both confirmed through careful examination and
interpretation of the constructs. Investigating convergent validity, the results are summarized
in Table 4 (Figure 3 in the appendix).
18 of 20 standardized factor loadings were found above the preferable value of .7, with the
two remaining factor loadings (L5 and SN2) providing acceptable values of .53 and .66
respectively (Hair et al., 2014).
By computing the average variance extracted (AVE), four constructs give a value over the
recommended cutoff point of .5 with subjective norms resulting in an AVE of 0.48, slightly
below the threshold value (Hair et al., 2014). However, we decided to maintain the construct
of subjective norms as it is a factor that is based on a strong body of previous literature, still
provides good composite reliability (.73), and is only slightly below the recommended AVE
cutoff point with .048.
24
Measured in SPSS, PBC was found with an AVE of .66, CR of .79, and a Cronbach’s Alpha
of .64. Despite being lower than preferred, all numbers were above the recommended cutoff
values. In reference to Yong & Pearce criteria (2013) for constructs with only two items, both
(PBC1, PBC2) showed a high loading of over .78 into PBC with no cross-loadings on other
factors above .3. Hence, due to the acceptable empirical results in combination with the
theoretical base for PBC, it was retained as a factor in the model.
Table 4. Model fit and construct validity measures after modeling
Construct Item Std. factor loading AVE1 CR2 α3
Attitudes A1 .71 .58 .85 .85
A2 .73
A3 .85
A4 .77
Subjective Norms SN1 .71 .48** .73 .73
SN2 .66
SN3 .71
Luxury Orientation L1 .73 .51 .84 .83
L2 .77
L3 .74
L4 .78
L5 .53
Fashion Involvement F1 .81 .63 .87 .87
F2 .77
F3 .89
F4 .71
Idol Attachment I1 .8 .77 .93 .93
I2 .93
I3 .9
I4 .89
PBC* PBC1 .78 .66 .79 .64
PBC2 .85
1Average Variance Extracted, 2Composite Reliability, 3Cronbach’s Alpha, *calculated using SPSS, **AVE <.5
χ2 (160 df) = 291.315, p <.001, RMSEA = .071 (pcclose = .006), CFI = 0.929 , TLI = .916
By secondly measuring the discriminant validity of the model, we aimed to identify how
much the five included constructs distinguish themselves from each other (Hair et al., 2014).
This is important to show that items, which measure different constructs, have low
correlations between them. Using the Fornell-Larcker Criterion, we examined the square root
of the AVE which must be greater than the correlation between the construct and any other
construct (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). We found that attitudes showed a relatively high
correlation with subjective norms of .549. However, the original TPB model already theorizes
25
internal relationships between attitudes, subjective norms, and PBC (Ajzen, 1991). Thus, a
correlation between some of these factors was expected. However, the value was below the
AVE square root of either construct (ATT = .767, SN = .694) and thus, acceptable. As also no
other between-constructs correlation was found to be greater than with itself, discriminant
validity could be established.
4.3 Multiple Linear Regression (MLR)
The six independent variables (predictors) selected for the regression analysis were attitudes,
subjective norms, PBC, luxury orientation, fashion involvement, and idol attachment in order
to measure their relationship with the dependent variable SF purchase intentions. To conduct
the regression analysis in SPSS, the items, which compromised the factors, were added up to
summated scales with a computed average.
To develop the initial model, it was checked that the independent variables must not have
high correlations with each other (Backhaus et al., 2018). An examination of the correlation
matrix of all predictors showed that this criterion was fulfilled and no factors had correlations
over .6. Hence, all predictors could be added to the model, resulting in a total of 11 factors
including 5 dummy variables for age and gender. This resulted in a significant regression
model (see Table 5 and Figure 2) at p < .001 (n = 166, F = 15.764). The explained variance
of the model (R²) lied at .533 (53.5%). However, out of the eleven predictors, only two
variables, attitudes and PBC, were found to be statistically significant.
Table 5. Regression model
DV: SF Purchase Intention B SE B β p
(Constant) -1.138 .431 - -
Attitudes .720 .106 .483 <.001*
Subjective Norms .168 .107 .112 .119
PBC .323 .061 .321 <.001*
Luxury Orientation .061 .074 .056 .412
Fashion Involvement -.018 .076 -0.18 .813
Idol Attachment -.095 .051 -.126 .061
Gender (female) .107 .114 .057 .349
Gender (pref. not to say) .248 .697 .021 .722
Age (18-22) .280 .178 .142 .118
Age (23-26) .265 .209 .109 .207
Age (27-30) -.534 .322 -.108 .100
Note: B = unstandardized beta, SE B = Std. Error, R² = .535, F = 15.764, p <.001, *statistically significant (1%
level), gender compared to “Gender (male)”, age compared to “Age (over 30)”
Testing the isolated relationships of gender and age with SPI, there was a small positive
relationship between female gender and SPI (.168), significant at the 5% level (p = .031).
However, the model showed a very low R² of .041, indicating a small amount of variance
26
explained. Similarly, for age, the 18-22 years group showed a small positive relationship
(.268) with SPI in comparison to the age group over 30 years at the 5% significance level
(.021). This model also showed a very low R² of .05. Despite the significance when regarded
in isolation, neither gender nor age showed a significant relationship with SPI in the
regression model with the other constructs added.
To identify the degree of multicollinearity, the correlation matrix (see Table 6) for the
constructs was investigated. In general, high correlations (> .90) is the first indication of
substantial collinearity. As there were no significant correlations over .549 found between
constructs, this initial condition was met.
Table 6. Correlation Matrix
Attitudes Subj. Norms PBC Fashion Idol Luxury
Attitudes 1
Subj. Norms .549** 1
PBC .199* .259** 1
Fashion .178* .279* .198* 1
Idol .094 .062 .154* .506** 1
Luxury -.073 .062 .118 .450** .312** 1
Note: ** significant at 0.01 level, *significant at 0.05 level
However, the lack of any high correlation values does not ensure a lack of collinearity. Thus,
additionally, the variation inflation factors (VIF) and the tolerance were examined. Both the
VIF and tolerance of all factors were in the required range of below 10 or above .2,
respectively (Hair et al., 2014). Ultimately checking the collinearity diagnostics table for low
eigenvalues, condition indices above 15, and potential multiple variance proportions above
0.9 (Hair et al., 2014), no indications of multicollinearity were detected.
Despite the model having a high R² of .535 with all constructs and control variables included,
this value is partly explained due to overfitting, meaning that the statistical model begins to
describe the random error in the data rather than the relationships between variables (Hair et
al., 2014). This can also be seen by looking at the adjusted R², which involves an adjustment
based on the number of independent variables relative to the sample size, and adding
nonsignificant variables is discounted (Hair et al., 2014).
As the model’s adjusted R² of .501 deviates from the R², this indicates an overfitted
regression model. Although exceeding the scope of this research, striving for model
parsimony would suggest a model that included only significant factors, in this case,
Attitudes and PBC, which would already result in an R² of .468 and a comparably close
adjusted R² of .461.
27
Figure 2. Regression Model
*p < .001, not showing: gender, age
5. Discussion
This study examined the intention to purchase SF for Japanese consumers based on the
Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). The TPB model was extended with luxury orientation,
fashion involvement and idol attachment as proposed barriers to sustainable fashion
consumption (SFC) in Japan, and tested with private university students in Tokyo. In
particular, we aimed to answer two research questions: 1) How does the TPB framework and
its constructs attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavior control (PBC) apply in the
context of SFC in Japan? and 2) How do luxury orientation, fashion involvement and idol
attachment influence the intention to purchase SF?
The findings of our study are mixed and partly confirm our hypotheses. With H1, we argued
that a positive attitude towards SF positively influences SF purchase intentions. This was
based on previous general findings of attitudes as an important predictor in the TPB model
(e.g. Bredahl, 2001; Chen, 2007; Michaelidou & Hassan, 2010) as well as in the
sustainability and fashion context (Brandão & da Costa, 2021; Kim & Han, 2010; Saricam &
Okur, 2019). We found that attitudes towards SF have a moderate positive influence on SF
purchase intentions and appeared to be the strongest predictor of purchase intentions in the
model. This finding aligns with previous results, specifically with studies that found attitudes
as the most important factor in the TPB, stronger than subjective norms and perceived
28
behavioral control (Maichum et al., 2016; Yazdanpanah & Forouzani, 2015; Saricam & Okur,
2019).
In H2, we hypothesized that positive subjective norms positively influence SF purchase
intentions, based on general TPB research (Ajzen, 2006; Fishbein et al., 2003) and previous
findings in the area of sustainable fashion consumption (Lam & Hsu, 2006; Kang et al., 2013;
Brandão & da Costa, 2021).
However, our study could not confirm these results as we didn’t detect a significant effect of
subjective norms on SF purchase intentions, resulting in a rejection of the hypothesis. This
challenges our theoretical assumption of the high influence of social norms in Japanese
society due to its collectivistic nature. Such norms can affect how people think and behave
(Dolan & Worden, 1994), including what type of fashion to purchase.
One possible interpretation can be the lack of social discourse and norms regarding SFC in
Japan. As mentioned, previous research found a relatively low awareness of sustainable
fashion in Japanese society (CAA, 2022). As the subjective norm will depend on what others
think of a certain behavior as well as the importance of public opinion within the culture
(Milton et al., 2018), this suggests that buying sustainable fashion is not socially prominent
and not a commonly performed behavior. Our distribution results show that over 40% say
that their peers are undecided (neither/nor) in their opinion on buying sustainable fashion.
Additionally, a recent study by the Japanese Environment Ministry showed 41 percent are not
interested in sustainability issues, and only four percent of shoppers actively buy sustainable
fashion (Sim, 2022). However, Japan places 4th in global rankings of fast-fashion
consumption, with USD 3.3 billion (Mawgoud, 2023).
Thus, despite norms playing a major role in Japanese society (Dolan & Worden, 1994;
Redding & Michael, 1983) this applies only to values, behaviors or ideas, which are central to
a majority of people. For example, when it comes to the usage of public transport in Japan, a
common mode of transportation, a recent study showed that people got influenced by the
travel experience and practices of others, and thus social norms (Ali et al., 2023). In other
words, norms can have a significant influence depending on the prevalence of the topic in
society which is however not the case for SFC.
Secondly, a further explanation is a potentially weaker influence of social norms on the
younger generation. Focusing on young adults in our study, Japanese norms and traditions
might play a decreasing role in decision-making. Young Japanese people are increasingly
opting out of traditional career paths and seeking lifestyles with greater personal freedom
(Klien, 2021). This movement towards individualization in terms of working and living
among younger Japanese (Klien, 2021) may correlate with diminishing importance of
collectivistic social norms and thus, influence one’s own fashion purchase decisions.
Our hypothesis H3 stated that perceived behavior control (PBC) towards SF positively
influences SF purchase intentions, which was based on general findings using the TPB
(Ajzen, 1991; Lam & Hsu, 2006) and the identified influence of PBC in application of the
model for sustainable fashion (Brandão & da Costa, 2021; Bo, Ko & Jin, 2017; Zhang et al.,
2019).
29
We can confirm this hypothesis and find that PBC has a small positive influence on the
intention to purchase SF. While previous research is divided, the finding adds to the existing
literature which confirms the importance of PBC. However, contrary to the study by Brandão
& da Costa (2021), PBC was not found as the most influential factor and had less influence
than attitudes.
While Brandão & da Costa (2021) didn’t provide a further explanation on the highest
prediction power of PBC in their model, we infer the lower importance of PBC to the smaller
presence of sustainable fashion in Japan. That is, despite having a positive attitude, many
people are less clear about their ability, resources, time and opportunities when it comes to
purchasing SF. This is also reflected in our data, as about 80 percent of people show a
positive or very positive attitude towards SF, but only 60 percent indicate high perceived
behavior control. This could be explained due to a lack of concrete knowledge, availability,
or time to buy sustainable apparel. Referring to the nascent stage of sustainable fashion in
Japan, SF stores are fewer and smaller than big fashion retailers. Moreover, shopping at
second-hand stores usually requires more time due to e.g. unpredictable product variety and
limited availability of sizes. Those aspects could have lowered the PBC of respondents.
With our second research question, we aimed to identify the influence of luxury orientation,
fashion involvement and idol attachment on SF purchase intentions in Japan and if these
factors act as barriers.
In H4 we argued that luxury orientation negatively influences SF purchase intentions, as
luxury and sustainability were found as contradicting concepts (Nash et al., 2016; Achabou &
Dekhili, 2013; Sauers, 2010). Literature states that consumers who buy luxury brands do not
focus on sustainable aspects when they decide on a luxury brand (Kapferer &
Michaut-Denizeau, 2015). Furthermore, luxury goods are often related to personal pleasure
and excess while sustainability is connected with ethics, altruism, respect and awareness for
others (e.g. Athwal et al., 2019; Jain, 2018; Moraes et al., 2017; Widloecher, 2010). Our
findings could neither detect a negative nor positive significant influence of this variable on
SF purchase intentions, requiring us to reject this hypothesis.
A first stream of research already proposed a perspective of conspicuous green consumption,
aiming to connect luxury and sustainability (Griskevicius & Van den Bergh, 2010). In our
case, this would mean that Japanese consumers also see buying sustainable as a way of
luxury, and signaling their status as an environmentally responsible person instead. However,
we assume this effect to be marginal as it strongly depends on context and culture, and in
Japanese society, a person with high environmental altruistic behavior is not necessarily
assigned a high social status; luxury consumption is what signals success (Slade, 2020).
Our interpretation of these results is that luxury goods and sustainability are not as conflicting
as assumed and luxury brands are not necessarily unsustainable (Fendi, 2023). Sustainability
focuses on the conservation of natural resources and is thus associated with durability, which
is also a core component of luxury brands (Kapferer, 2015) as high-quality materials ensure
long-term use. Furthermore, because of the greater feasibility and resources luxury brands
have, consumers are beginning to expect more ‘responsible luxury’ (Janssen, Vanhamme, and
30
Leblanc, 2017). The industry has received pressure to include pro-environmental aspects into
their business model (De Angelis, Adigüzel & Amatulli, 2017) and consequently become
more responsible for their carbon footprint (Carrington et al., 2016). For instance, this
includes using vegan leather and organic cotton (Wolfe, 2018), avoiding real fur (Jones,
2018) or sharing expertise in sustainable operations (Farra, 2019). This speaks for the
increasing importance and expected consideration of sustainability also for luxury-oriented
consumers.
Taking another perspective, so-called thrift stores in Tokyo particularly focus on reselling
designer brands, fashion jewelry and high-end clothing (Kurita, 2023). In other words,
luxury-oriented consumers are able to shop for luxury brands but at the same time purchase at
a more sustainable, second-hand store. Nevertheless, the impression of second-hand is often
perceived as about saving money (McNeill & Moore, 2015) and thrift shops resell
high-quality items at a much cheaper price (Akkerman, 2022). This fundamentally
contradicts the purpose of luxury consumption, to differentiate with high pricing (McKinsey,
1990) and distinguish with exclusivity (Wiedmann et al., 2009).
This is, we infer that luxury and sustainability are at least partly compatible and luxury
orientation doesn’t necessarily exclude sustainability, explaining the undirected relationship
in our data.
Based on findings by Zhang & Kim (2013), we suggested in H5 that high fashion
involvement negatively influences SF purchase intentions. Fashion involvement often is
connected with continuous changes in clothing, due to the wish to be perceived as trendy and
fashionable (Diddi et al., 2019). On the other hand, extraordinary design and variety is
usually not associated with sustainable fashion (Moon et al., 2014; Ozdamar Ertekin & Atik,
2014; Vazifdar, 2021), making it less appealing to highly fashionable consumers.
However, the hypothesis was rejected since we could not find a significant influence of
fashion involvement on the intention to purchase SF. We interpret that this is because fashion
involvement does not necessarily contradict sustainability, either. Although sustainable
fashion was considered unfashionable in previous studies, second-hand fashion has become
an emerging trend in Tokyo, outgrowing its originally poor reputation. Today, many of the
fashionable areas in Tokyo opened second-hand stores and thrift stores, incl. Shimokitazawa,
Harajuku, Shibuya or Koenji (Imada, 2022). Vintage and thrift shopping can allow one to
find unique clothing pieces and combinations, resulting in a unique style, which can even
give the “fashionable edge” (Akkerman, 2022). Additionally, multiple Japanese sustainable
fashion startups (e.g. I Was A Kimono, KUON, tennen or Modeco) are focusing on making
fashionable products by upcycling high-quality fabrics into stylish apparel or accessories
(Lim, 2021). However, as fast-fashion brands can provide clothing with greater variety and
up to the latest trends (e.g. Roll, 2021), this can make fashionable consumers decide against
sustainable fashion.
That said, fashionability and sustainability can go together, and at least some
fashion-involved individuals might specifically choose to shop at second-hand stores or buy
from sustainable fashion start-ups.
31
Finally, we hypothesized that high idol attachment has a negative influence on the intention
to buy sustainable fashion (H6). Idols, such as celebrities or influencers, were found to have
strong social power (Bartlett, 2022; Zhang & Kim, 2013; Zhou et al., 2021) and particularly
young adults form bonds with popular media figures (Boon & Lomore, 2001), which can
influence their desires, values and behaviors (Caughey, 1994). We identified that, in Japan,
relevant Korean or Japanese idols focus on luxury brand collaborations (Wills, 2021; Kim,
2021) and do not promote sustainable fashion.
Nevertheless, we could not find a significant relationship, rejecting this hypothesis. In other
words, even though one follows an idol and their style, this is not a decisive factor for not
considering sustainable fashion consumption. This lack of effect is surprising, as we find
almost 50 percent indicating to pay attention to the fashion of their idols, and over 35 percent
state it influences their product choices.
However, despite the potential impact of idols, our assumption is that idols do not influence
sustainable fashion consumption. As idols are focusing on luxury brands, but luxury and
sustainability do not necessarily exclude one another (Griskevicius & Van den Bergh, 2010),
a high idol attachment might not have a negative influence on the intentions to purchase SF.
A second argument is that K-idols are actually starting to express their opinion about
sustainability. In the recent public appearance of the Korean Band BTS at the U.N.
Headquarters in South Korea in 2021 (Lee, 2009b), its members were wearing a suit
particularly designed by a sustainable upcycling brand “RE;CODE” based in Korea and a
rainbow crystal Swarovski pin presenting the U.N. Sustainable Development Goals (Widjojo,
2021). This shows the first actions undertaken by K-idols like BTS to shed light on climate
change as well as sustainable development and communicate it through their fashion while
combining it with what they usually promote, namely luxury brands. Although a minor stunt
compared to ongoing luxury brand collaborations, this appearance could have made more
people connect the band’s fashion with sustainability and also provides a symbolic example
of combining luxury and sustainability. We assume that if idols emphasized promoting
sustainable fashion brands, a high idol attachment could become a driver for sustainable
fashion consumption due to the generally high attention people pay to their idols, fashion
styles and product choices (Lockwood & Kunda, 1997; Desai & Basuroy, 2005; Martin &
Bush, 2000).
6. Conclusion
Despite the major negative impact of fashion consumption on the environment (Young, 2020,
Japanese fast-fashion retailers are leading the industry with billions of USD in revenue
(Mitsui Fudosan, 2022), contributing to high CO2 emissions and waste (CAA, 2022a).
However, Japanese consumers' knowledge of sustainable fashion is currently still low and
many people are not aware of the meaning (CAAb, 2022).
32
This lack of success for sustainable fashion in Japan was hypothesized to be due to
sociocultural barriers, which negatively influence Japanese people’s intention to purchase
sustainable fashion. This study aimed to apply the theory of planned behavior (TPB) model to
SF purchase intentions in Japan and investigate the importance of luxury orientation, fashion
involvement, and idol attachment as added barriers, which have not yet been examined in
previous studies.
We found that the factors attitude and perceived behavior control had a significant positive
influence in predicting sustainable fashion purchase intentions, with attitudes being the most
influential factor. However, subjective norms did not show a significant relationship which
contradicts our assumptions but is explained by a lack of prominence of SF in Japanese
society and a less collectivistic mindset of the younger generation. Hence, in relation to our
first research question, we can say that the TPB framework partly applied to SF intentions in
Japan.
Secondly, the hypothesized barriers of luxury orientation, fashion involvement, and idol
attachment could not be confirmed as significant influences to SF purchase intentions in
Japan. In our interpretation, luxury orientation does not necessarily exclude sustainability,
and luxury brands can increasingly be purchased at brand thrift shops in Tokyo, allowing for
second-hand luxury shopping. Secondly, sustainable fashion can also be seen as fashionable,
as purchasing second-hand can provide a unique style and emerging Japanese start-ups are
designing fashionable, but sustainable apparel. Lastly, idol attachment was not found as a
barrier, likely as idols solely focus on luxury brands, which does not necessarily negatively
affect SFC, as indicated above.
6.1 Implications
Our research contributes to the body of literature investigating SFC (Dabas & Whang, 2022)
and particularly SFC in Japan, which has only been examined by a limited amount of studies
(Kong & Ko, 2017; Dhir et al. 2021a, 2021b). Our study is the first attempt to test an
extended TPB model on SF purchase intentions in Japan, aiming to bridge the identified gap
of applying the TPB to SFC in different cultural contexts (Dabas & Whang, 2022) and cover
the lack of research regarding Japan.
Although we could not confirm the importance of the proposed barriers of luxury, fashion,
and idols, we could validate the positive influence of attitudes and perceived behavior control
on SF purchase intentions, and interpret the missing influence of subjective norms due to a
lack of prominence of sustainable fashion in Japan.
For practice, these results indicate that targeting Japanese consumers’ attitudes as well as
their PBC are influential aspects to increase their SF purchase intentions. This is interesting
for sustainable fashion brands aiming to establish themselves in this market. For instance,
Japanese consumers’ attitudes towards SF could be increased by using advertising strategies,
which can promote it to be good, wise, or pleasant to consume SF. Perceived behavior control
could be targeted by focusing on the availability of SF, making products quick and easy to
33
find online or locally, as well as offering at reasonable prices. Addressing these aspects can
increase Japanese consumers’ perceived confidence and ability to purchase SF. To
compensate for the lack of social norms towards SF in Japanese society, brands could use
educational initiatives to inform more people in society about sustainable fashion and develop
public interest in this topic. Ultimately, luxury orientation, fashion involvement, and idol
attachment were not found as influential, and while this indicates they should not be
considered as strategic priorities, they should also not be fully neglected.
6.2 Limitations and Future Research
This study comes with limitations as well as possible avenues for future research. The scope
of this research was limited to purchase intentions, which means that conclusions about actual
purchase behavior are limited. Purchase intentions do not necessarily translate into behavior,
which is documented by a variety of research, also in the context of sustainability and is
labeled as the intention-behavior gap (Carrington et al., 2010; Prothero et al., 2011; Connell
& Kozar, 2014; Niinimäki, 2010). Therefore, future research could extend our TPB approach
and test the relationship of SF intentions and SFC behavior in Japan.
Furthermore, we narrowed our sample to private university students, that is, future research
could address a bigger population with a bigger sample size and probability-sampling
method, achieving higher generalizability of results. This is particularly suggested due to the
high median age in Japan (48.6 years), which makes a sample group of young adults only
representative of a fraction of citizens and neglects the political importance this age group has
with their attitudes and behavior.
Moreover, we found a majority of respondents stated a (very) positive attitude towards
sustainable fashion in our study, indicating rising concern for the topic in this target group. As
environmental concern was previously established as a significant predictor of green
purchase intentions in other countries (e.g. Yadav & Pathak, 2016; Albayrak & Caber, 2013),
future studies should investigate the importance of this factor in the Japanese context to
predict SF purchase intentions, especially when it comes to the younger generation.
Lastly, further studies could investigate the influence of personal international experience.
Due to its remote location, history of economic isolation (e.g. Sakoku period), and relatively
unique culture, Japan can be seen as a somehow shielded country. In combination with strong
traditional roots (Dolan & Worden, 1994), it can prevent exposure to external inputs and
hence make a change, like a shift to new consumption patterns, rather difficult. However,
Japanese who have traveled abroad to other countries like Sweden, Denmark or the UK
(Berry, 2021), and experienced a more sustainable society and consumer behavior, might be
inclined to switch to sustainable fashion when they return.
With this in mind, it is possible to pave the way for sustainable fashion consumption in Japan
and get back on track with mottainai, for a respectful use of resources and a better future.
34
Acknowledgements
A great thanks goes to our supervisor Erik Lundberg for his continuous support and valuable
feedback throughout the process. Furthermore, we would like to thank the Prins Bertil
Scholarship Committee for providing the financial support for this thesis. Finally, a thank you
to our families, who supported us along the way of achieving this degree of academic
education.
35
Appendix
Figure 3. CFA Model
36
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